Effects of Lower Limb Resistance Training on Cognitive Function in Older Adults with Mild Cognitive Impairment Risk
Abstract
Background: Promoting healthy ageing is a major public health challenge, especially with increasing mild cognitive impairment (MCI) prevalence and associated dementia risk in older adults. Exercise training may improve cognitive function, yet studies on its effects in MCI populations remain limited and inconsistent in design and outcomes. This study investigated the impact of a 12-week structured lower limb resistance training (RT) programme on cognitive performance, specifically memory and executive function in older adults at low and high risk of MCI.
Methods: Fifty-three older adults (aged 60–80) completed the study and were categorised into low risk (lrMCI, n = 28) and high risk (hrMCI, n = 25) MCI groups. Participants were assigned to a 12-week RT programme (2 sessions/week, 4 lower-limb exercises, 3 sets of 6–10 reps at 70–85% 1RM) or a passive control group. Cognitive performance was assessed using the Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA) and ANAM4™ neurocognitive battery before and after the intervention.
Results: At week 12, participants with high risk MCI in the resistance training group showed a significant improvement in MoCA total scores, particularly in executive function and delayed recall domains. An increase in MoCA scores was also observed in the control group, suggesting a potential learning effect. Performance across ANAM4 cognitive tasks did not show statistically significant changes following the intervention.
Conclusion: A twice-weekly RT programme over 12 weeks did not produce robust improvements across all cognitive domains, but trends suggested potential benefits in executive function and inhibitory control among older adults at higher risk of MCI. The cognitive response to RT appears to vary by MCI risk level and baseline cognitive status.
Keywords: older adults, MoCA (Montreal Cognitive Assessment), executive function, memory, ANAM4 neurocognitive battery
References
Alzheimer’s disease facts and figures. (2024). Alzheimer’s & Dementia, 20(5), 3708–3821. https://doi.org/10.1002/alz.13809 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/alz.13809
Aghjayan, S. L., Bournias, T., Kang, C., Zhou, X., Stillman, C. M., Donofry, S. D., Kamarck, T. W., Marsland, A. L., Voss, M. W., Fraundorf, S. H., & Erickson, K. I. (2022). Aerobic exercise improves episodic memory in late adulthood: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Communications Medicine, 2(1). https://doi.org/10.1038/s43856-022-00079-7 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s43856-022-00079-7
Alzheimer’s Disease International, Evans-Lacko, S., Aguzzoli, E., Read, S., Comas-Herrera, A., & Farina, N. (2024, September 20). World Alzheimer Report 2024. https://www.alzint.org/resource/world-alzheimer-report-2024/
Anand, S., & Schoo, C. (2024, January 11). Mild cognitive impairment. StatPearls [Internet]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38261679/
Azevedo, C. V., Hashiguchi, D., Campos, H. C., Figueiredo, E. V., Otaviano, S. F. S. D., Penitente, A. R., Arida, R. M., & Longo, B. M. (2023). The effects of resistance exercise on cognitive function, amyloidogenesis, and neuroinflammation in Alzheimer’s disease. Frontiers in Neuroscience, 17. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2023.1131214 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2023.1131214
Best, J. R., Chiu, B. K., Liang Hsu, C., Nagamatsu, L. S., & Liu-Ambrose, T. (2015). Long-term effects of resistance exercise training on cognition and brain volume in older women: Results from a randomized controlled trial. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 21(10), 745–756. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1355617715000673 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S1355617715000673
Bradfield, N. I. (2023). Mild cognitive impairment: Diagnosis and subtypes. Clinical EEG and Neuroscience, 54(1), 4–11. https://doi.org/10.1177/15500594211042708 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/15500594211042708
Broadhouse, K. M., Singh, M. F., Suo, C., Gates, N., Wen, W., Brodaty, H., Jain, N., Wilson, G. C., Meiklejohn, J., Singh, N., Baune, B. T., Baker, M., Foroughi, N., Wang, Y., Kochan, N., Ashton, K., Brown, M., Li, Z., Mavros, Y., … Valenzuela, M. J. (2020). Hippocampal plasticity underpins long-term cognitive gains from resistance exercise in MCI. NeuroImage: Clinical, 25. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nicl.2020.102182 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nicl.2020.102182
Buckner, R. L. (2004). Memory and executive function in aging and AD. Neuron, 44(1), 195–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2004.09.006 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2004.09.006
Calle, M. C., & Fernandez, M. L. (2010). Effects of resistance training on the inflammatory response. Nutrition Research and Practice, 4(4), 259. https://doi.org/10.4162/nrp.2010.4.4.259 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4162/nrp.2010.4.4.259
Cassilhas, R. C., Viana, V. A. R., Grassmann, V., Santos, R. T., Santos, R. F., Tufik, S., & Mello, M. T. (2007). The impact of resistance exercise on the cognitive function of the elderly. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 39(8), 1401–1407. https://doi.org/10.1249/mss.0b013e318060111f DOI: https://doi.org/10.1249/mss.0b013e318060111f
Cavalcante, B. R., De Souza, M. F., Falck, R. S., Liu-Ambrose, T., Behm, D. G., Pitangui, A. C. R., & De Araújo, R. C. (2020). Effects of resistance exercise with instability on cognitive function (REI study): A proof-of-concept randomized controlled trial in older adults with cognitive complaints. Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease, 77(1), 227–239. https://doi.org/10.3233/JAD-200349 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3233/JAD-200349
Center for the Study of Human Operator Performance (C-SHOP). (2007). ANAM4: User manual (pp. 149–157). University of Oklahoma.
Chantanachai, T., Taylor, M. E., Lord, S. R., Menant, J., Delbaere, K., Sachdev, P. S., Kochan, N. A., Brodaty, H., & Sturnieks, D. L. (2022). Risk factors for falls in community-dwelling older people with mild cognitive impairment: A prospective one-year study. PeerJ, 10, e13484. https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.13484 DOI: https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.13484
Cheng, A., Zhao, Z., Liu, H., Yang, J., & Luo, J. (2022). The physiological mechanism and effect of resistance exercise on cognitive function in the elderly people. Frontiers in Public Health, 10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2022.1013734 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2022.1013734
Cheng, X., & Yang, Z. (2024). Effect of resistance training on inflammatory markers in middle-aged and older adults: A meta-analysis. Archives of Gerontology and Geriatrics, 126, 105536. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.archger.2024.105536 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.archger.2024.105536
Chow, Z.-S., Moreland, A. T., Macpherson, H., & Teo, W.-P. (2021). The central mechanisms of resistance training and its effects on cognitive function. Sports Medicine, 51(12), 2483–2506. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-021-01535-5 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-021-01535-5
Coelho-Júnior, H. J., Gonçalves, I. de O., Sampaio, R. A. C., Sampaio, P. Y. S., Cadore, E. L., Calvani, R., Picca, A., Izquierdo, M., Marzetti, E., & Uchida, M. C. (2020). Effects of combined resistance and power training on cognitive function in older women: A randomized controlled trial. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(10). https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17103435 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17103435
Collie, A., Maruff Paul, D. D. G., & McStephen, M. (2003). The effects of practice on the cognitive test performance of neurologically normal individuals assessed at brief test–retest intervals. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 9(3), 419–428. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1355617703930074 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S1355617703930074
Cooley, S. A., Heaps, J. M., Bolzenius, J. D., Salminen, L. E., Baker, L. M., Scott, S. E., & Paul, R. H. (2015). Longitudinal change in performance on the Montreal cognitive assessment in older adults. Clinical Neuropsychologist, 29(6), 824–835. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854046.2015.1087596 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/13854046.2015.1087596
Dautzenberg, G., Lijmer, J., & Beekman, A. (2020). Diagnostic accuracy of the Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA) for cognitive screening in old age psychiatry: Determining cutoff scores in clinical practice. Avoiding spectrum bias caused by healthy controls. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 35(3), 261–269. https://doi.org/10.1002/gps.5227 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/gps.5227
Diamond, A., & Ling, D. S. (2019). Aerobic-exercise and resistance-training interventions have been among the least effective ways to improve executive functions of any method tried thus far. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 37, 100572. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dcn.2018.05.001 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dcn.2018.05.001
Dunne, R. A., Aarsland, D., O’Brien, J. T., Ballard, C., Banerjee, S., Fox, N. C., Isaacs, J. D., Underwood, B. R., Perry, R. J., Chan, D., Dening, T., Thomas, A. J., Schryer, J., Jones, A.-M., Evans, A. R., Alessi, C., Coulthard, E. J., Pickett, J., Elton, P., … Burns, A. (2021). Mild cognitive impairment: The Manchester consensus. Age and Ageing, 50(1), 72–80. https://doi.org/10.1093/ageing/afaa228 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/ageing/afaa228
Engeroff, T., Füzéki, E., Vogt, L., Fleckenstein, J., Schwarz, S., Matura, S., Pilatus, U., Deichmann, R., Hellweg, R., Pantel, J., & Banzer, W. (2018). Is objectively assessed sedentary behavior, physical activity and cardiorespiratory fitness linked to brain plasticity outcomes in old age? Neuroscience, 388, 384–392. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroscience.2018.07.050 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroscience.2018.07.050
Eriksson, J., Vogel, E. K., Lansner, A., Bergström, F., & Nyberg, L. (2015). Neurocognitive architecture of working memory. Neuron, 88(1), 33–46. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2015.09.020 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2015.09.020
Esiri, M. M., & Chance, S. A. (2012). Cognitive reserve, cortical plasticity and resistance to Alzheimer’s disease. Alzheimer’s Research & Therapy, 4(2), 7. https://doi.org/10.1186/alzrt105 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/alzrt105
Falleti, M. G., Maruff, P., Collie, A., & Darby, D. G. (2006). Practice effects associated with the repeated assessment of cognitive function using the CogState battery at 10-minute, one week and one month test-retest intervals. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 28(7), 1095–1112. https://doi.org/10.1080/13803390500205718 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/13803390500205718
Feter, N., Schaun, G. Z., Smith, E. C., Cassuriaga, J., Alt, R., Redig, L., Alberton, C. L., Coombes, J. S., & Rombaldi, A. J. (2023). High-velocity resistance training improves executive function in mobility-limited older adults. Archives of Gerontology and Geriatrics, 114, 105081. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.archger.2023.105081 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.archger.2023.105081
Fiatarone Singh, M. A., Gates, N., Saigal, N., Wilson, G. C., Meiklejohn, J., Brodaty, H., Wen, W., Singh, N., Baune, B. T., Suo, C., Baker, M. K., Foroughi, N., Wang, Y., Sachdev, P. S., & Valenzuela, M. (2014). The Study of Mental and Resistance Training (SMART) study – Resistance training and/or cognitive training in mild cognitive impairment: A randomized, double-blind, double-sham controlled trial. Journal of the American Medical Directors Association, 15(12), 873–880. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jamda.2014.09.010 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jamda.2014.09.010
Fontes, E. B., Libardi, C. A., Castellano, G., Okano, A. H., Fernandes, P. T., Chacon-Mikahil, M. P., Ugrinowitsch, C., Cavaglieri, C. R., & Li, L. M. (2017). Effects of resistance training in gray matter density of elderly. Sport Sciences for Health, 13(1), 233–238. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11332-016-0298-5 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11332-016-0298-5
Fragala, M. S., Cadore, E. L., Dorgo, S., Izquierdo, M., Kraemer, W. J., Peterson, M. D., & Ryan, E. D. (2019). Resistance training for older adults: Position statement from the National Strength and Conditioning Association. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 33(8), 2019–2052. https://doi.org/10.1519/JSC.0000000000003230 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1519/JSC.0000000000003230
Gökçe, E., Vints, W. A. J., Šeikinaitė, J., Kušleikienė, S., Seduikiene, M., Valatkeviciene, K., Gleiznienė, R., Česnaitienė, V. J., Verbunt, J., Levin, O., & Masiulis, N. (2023). The impact of 12 weeks of resistance exercise on hippocampus structural and neurochemical characteristics in older adults: Evidence from MRI and 1H-MRS findings. Journal of the Neurological Sciences, 455, 122124. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jns.2023.122124 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jns.2023.122124
Grundman, M., Petersen, R. C., Ferris, S. H., Thomas, R. G., Aisen, P. S., Bennett, D. A., Foster, N. L., Jack, C. R., Galasko, D. R., Doody, R., Kaye, J., Sano, M., Mohs, R., Gauthier, S., Kim, H. T., Jin, S., Schultz, A. N., Schafer, K., Mulnard, R., … Alzheimer’s Disease Cooperative Study. (2004). Mild cognitive impairment can be distinguished from Alzheimer disease and normal aging for clinical trials. Archives of Neurology, 61(1), 59–66. https://doi.org/10.1001/archneur.61.1.59 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1001/archneur.61.1.59
Haff, G. G., & Triplett, N. T. (Eds.). (2016). Essentials of strength training and conditioning (4th ed.). Human Kinetics.
Han, F., Luo, C., Lv, D., Tian, L., & Qu, C. (2022). Risk factors affecting cognitive impairment of the elderly aged 65 and over: A cross-sectional study. Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience, 14. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnagi.2022.903794 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fnagi.2022.903794
Hattabi, S., Fadhlaoui, H., Hammami, N., Miguel Forte, P., Sortwell, A., & Branquinho, L. (2024). The impact of resistance training on mental health: Neuropsychological and behavioral functioning. IntechOpen. https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.1008261 DOI: https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.1008261
Herold, F., Törpel, A., Schega, L., & Müller, N. G. (2019). Functional and/or structural brain changes in response to resistance exercises and resistance training lead to cognitive improvements – A systematic review. European Review of Aging and Physical Activity, 16, 10. https://doi.org/10.1186/s11556-019-0217-2 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s11556-019-0217-2
Hoffmann, C. M., Petrov, M. E., & Lee, R. E. (2021). Aerobic physical activity to improve memory and executive function in sedentary adults without cognitive impairment: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Preventive Medicine Reports, 23, 101496. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pmedr.2021.101496 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pmedr.2021.101496
Hortobágyi, T., Granacher, U., Fernandez-del-Olmo, M., Howatson, G., Manca, A., Deriu, F., Taube, W., Gruber, M., Márquez, G., Lundbye-Jensen, J., & Colomer-Poveda, D. (2021). Functional relevance of resistance training-induced neuroplasticity in health and disease. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 122, 79–91. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2020.12.019 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2020.12.019
Hu, J., Huang, B., & Chen, K. (2024). The impact of physical exercise on neuroinflammation mechanism in Alzheimer’s disease. Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience, 16. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnagi.2024.1444716 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fnagi.2024.1444716
Huang, B., Chen, K., & Li, Y. (2023). Aerobic exercise, an effective prevention and treatment for mild cognitive impairment. Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience, 15. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnagi.2023.1194559 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fnagi.2023.1194559
Hughes, T. F., Liu, A., Jacobsen, E., Rosano, C., Berman, S. B., Chang, C.-C. H., & Ganguli, M. (2021). Exercise and the risk of mild cognitive impairment. Alzheimer Disease & Associated Disorders, 35(1), 30–35. https://doi.org/10.1097/WAD.0000000000000410 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1097/WAD.0000000000000410
Iraniparast, M., Shi, Y., Wu, Y., Zeng, L., Maxwell, C. J., Kryscio, R. J., St John, P. D., SantaCruz, K. S., & Tyas, S. L. (2022). Cognitive reserve and mild cognitive impairment. Neurology, 98(11), E1114–E1123. https://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0000000000200051 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0000000000200051
Islam, N., Hashem, R., Gad, M., Brown, A., Levis, B., Renoux, C., Thombs, B. D., & McInnes, M. D. (2023). Accuracy of the Montreal Cognitive Assessment tool for detecting mild cognitive impairment: A systematic review and meta‐analysis. Alzheimer’s & Dementia, 19(7), 3235–3243. https://doi.org/10.1002/alz.13040 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/alz.13040
Julayanont, P., Phillips, N., Chertkow, H., & Nasreddine, Z. S. (2012). The Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA): Concept and clinical review. In A. J. Larner (Ed.), Cognitive screening instruments: A practical approach (pp. 111–152). Springer-Verlag. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4471-2452-8_6
Kim, H., Yang, S., Park, J., Kim, B. C., Yu, K.-H., & Kang, Y. (2023). Effect of education on discriminability of Montreal Cognitive Assessment compared to mini-mental state examination. Dementia and Neurocognitive Disorders, 22(2), 69. https://doi.org/10.12779/dnd.2023.22.2.69 DOI: https://doi.org/10.12779/dnd.2023.22.2.69
Kim, H.-J., Lee, D., & Lee, Y. (2022). The effect of aerobic exercise on brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) in individuals with mild cognitive impairment: A systematic review and meta-analysis of a randomized controlled trials. Physical Therapy Rehabilitation Science, 11(3), 304–310. https://doi.org/10.14474/ptrs.2022.11.3.304 DOI: https://doi.org/10.14474/ptrs.2022.11.3.304
Kim, S., Kang, Y., Yu, K.-H., & Lee, B.-C. (2016). Disproportionate decline of executive functions in early mild cognitive impairment, late mild cognitive impairment, and mild Alzheimer’s disease. Dementia and Neurocognitive Disorders, 15(4), 159. https://doi.org/10.12779/dnd.2016.15.4.159 DOI: https://doi.org/10.12779/dnd.2016.15.4.159
Kirova, A. M., Bays, R. B., & Lagalwar, S. (2015). Working memory and executive function decline across normal aging, mild cognitive impairment, and Alzheimer’s disease. BioMed Research International, 2015, 748212. https://doi.org/10.1155/2015/748212 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1155/2015/748212
Koshimoto, B. H. B., Brandão, P. R. de P., Borges, V., Ferraz, H. B., Schumacher-Schuh, A. F., Rieder, C. R. de M., Olchik, M. R., Mata, I. F., Tumas, V., & Santos-Lobato, B. L. (2023). Floor and ceiling effects on the Montreal Cognitive Assessment in patients with Parkinson’s disease in Brazil. Dementia & Neuropsychologia, 17. https://doi.org/10.1590/1980-5764-dn-2023-0022 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1590/1980-5764-dn-2023-0022
Kušleikienė, S., Ziv, G., Vints, W. A. J., Krasinskė, E., Šarkinaite, M., Qipo, O., Bautmans, I., Himmelreich, U., Masiulis, N., Česnaitienė, V. J., & Levin, O. (2025). Cognitive gains and cortical thickness changes after 12 weeks of resistance training in older adults with low and high risk of mild cognitive impairment: Findings from a randomized controlled trial. Brain Research Bulletin, 222, 111249. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brainresbull.2025.111249 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brainresbull.2025.111249
Landrigan, J. F., Bell, T., Crowe, M., Clay, O. J., & Mirman, D. (2020). Lifting cognition: A meta-analysis of effects of resistance exercise on cognition. Psychological Research, 84(5), 1167–1183. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00426-019-01145-x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00426-019-01145-x
Lautenschlager, N. T., Cox, K. L., & Ellis, K. A. (2019). Physical activity for cognitive health: What advice can we give to older adults with subjective cognitive decline and mild cognitive impairment? Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience, 21(1), 61–68. https://doi.org/10.31887/dcns.2019.21.1/nlautenschlager DOI: https://doi.org/10.31887/DCNS.2019.21.1/nlautenschlager
Lee, J., & Kim, H.-J. (2022). Normal aging induces changes in the brain and neurodegeneration progress: Review of the structural, biochemical, metabolic, cellular, and molecular changes. Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience, 14. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnagi.2022.931536 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fnagi.2022.931536
Levin, O., Netz, Y., & Ziv, G. (2017). The beneficial effects of different types of exercise interventions on motor and cognitive functions in older age: A systematic review. European Review of Aging and Physical Activity, 14(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s11556-017-0189-z DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s11556-017-0189-z
Levin, O., Netz, Y., & Ziv, G. (2021). Behavioral and neurophysiological aspects of inhibition—The effects of acute cardiovascular exercise. Journal of Clinical Medicine, 10(2), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm10020282 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm10020282
Levin, O., Vints, W. A. J., Ziv, G., Katkutė, G., Kušleikienė, S., Valatkevičienė, K., Sheoran, S., Drozdova-Statkevičienė, M., Gleiznienė, R., Pääsuke, M., Dudonienė, V., Himmelreich, U., Česnaitienė, V. J., & Masiulis, N. (2023). Neurometabolic correlates of posturography in normal aging and older adults with mild cognitive impairment: Evidence from a 1H-MRS study. NeuroImage: Clinical, 37. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nicl.2022.103304 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nicl.2022.103304
Liang, X., Yuan, Q., Xue, C., Qi, W., Ge, H., Yan, Z., Chen, S., Song, Y., Wu, H., Xiao, C., & Chen, J. (2022). Convergent functional changes of the episodic memory impairment in mild cognitive impairment: An ALE meta-analysis. Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience, 14. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnagi.2022.919859 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fnagi.2022.919859
Liu, L., Dong, H., Jin, X., & Brooke-Wavell, K. (2022). Tackling dementia: A systematic review of interventions based on physical activity. Journal of Geriatric Physical Therapy, 45(4), E169–E180. https://doi.org/10.1519/JPT.0000000000000332 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1519/JPT.0000000000000332
Liu, Q., & Wang, L. (2021). t-Test and ANOVA for data with ceiling and/or floor effects. Behavior Research Methods, 53(1), 264–277. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-020-01407-2 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-020-01407-2
Liu-Ambrose, T., Nagamatsu, L. S., Graf, P., Lynn Beattie, B., Ashe, M. C., & Handy, T. C. (2010). Resistance training and executive functions: A 12-month randomized controlled trial. Archives of Internal Medicine, 170(2), 170–178. https://doi.org/10.1001/archinternmed.2009.494 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1001/archinternmed.2009.494
Liu-Ambrose, T., Nagamatsu, L. S., Voss, M. W., Khan, K. M., & Handy, T. C. (2012). Resistance training and functional plasticity of the aging brain: A 12-month randomized controlled trial. Neurobiology of Aging, 33(8), 1690–1698. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2011.05.010 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2011.05.010
Macaulay, T. R., Hegarty, A., Yan, L., Duncan, D., Pa, J., Kutch, J. J., La Rocca, M., Lane, C. J., & Schroeder, E. T. (2022). Effects of a 12-week periodized resistance training program on resting brain activity and cerebrovascular function: A nonrandomized pilot trial. Neuroscience Insights, 17, 263310552211194. https://doi.org/10.1177/26331055221119441 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/26331055221119441
Meyers, J. E., & Vincent, A. S. (2020). Automated Neuropsychological Assessment Metrics (v4) military battery: Military normative data. Military Medicine, 185(9–10), e1706–e1721. https://doi.org/10.1093/milmed/usaa066 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/milmed/usaa066
Molina-Sotomayor, E., Castillo-Quezada, H., Martínez-Salazar, C., González-Orb, M., Espinoza-Salinas, A., & Gonzalez-Jurado, J. A. (2020). Effects of progressive resistance training on cognition and IGF-1 levels in elder women who live in areas with high air pollution. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(17), 1–17. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17176203 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17176203
Morishita, S., Tsubaki, A., Nakamura, M., Nashimoto, S., Fu, J. B., & Onishi, H. (2019). Rating of perceived exertion on resistance training in elderly subjects. Expert Review of Cardiovascular Therapy, 17(2), 135–142. https://doi.org/10.1080/14779072.2019.1561278 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/14779072.2019.1561278
Nasreddine, Z. S., Phillips, N. A., Bédirian, V., Charbonneau, S., Whitehead, V., Collin, I., Cummings, J. L., & Chertkow, H. (2005). The Montreal Cognitive Assessment, MoCA: A brief screening tool for mild cognitive impairment. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 53(4), 695–699. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-5415.2005.53221.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-5415.2005.53221.x
Petersen, R. C. (2016). Mild cognitive impairment. CONTINUUM: Lifelong Learning in Neurology, 22(2, Dementia), 404–418. https://doi.org/10.1212/CON.0000000000000313 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1212/CON.0000000000000313
Petersen, R. C., Caracciolo, B., Brayne, C., Gauthier, S., Jelic, V., & Fratiglioni, L. (2014). Mild cognitive impairment: A concept in evolution. Journal of Internal Medicine, 275(3), 214–228. https://doi.org/10.1111/joim.12190 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/joim.12190
Petersen, R. C., Lopez, O., Armstrong, M. J., Getchius, T. S. D., Ganguli, M., Gloss, D., Gronseth, G. S., Marson, D., Pringsheim, T., Day, G. S., Sager, M., Stevens, J., & Rae-Grant, A. (2018). Practice guideline update summary: Mild cognitive impairment [RETIRED]: Report of the Guideline Development, Dissemination, and Implementation Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology. Neurology, 90(3), 126–135. https://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0000000000004826 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0000000000004826
Petersen, R. C., Smith, G. E., Waring, S. C., Ivnik, R. J., Tangalos, E. G., & Kokmen, E. (1999). Mild cognitive impairment. Archives of Neurology, 56(3), 303. https://doi.org/10.1001/archneur.56.3.303 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1001/archneur.56.3.303
Petkus, A. J., Resnick, S. M., Rapp, S. R., Espeland, M. A., Gatz, M., Widaman, K. F., Wang, X., Younan, D., Casanova, R., Chui, H., Barnard, R. T., Gaussoin, S., Goveas, J. S., Hayden, K. M., Henderson, V. W., Sachs, B. C., Saldana, S., Shadyab, A. H., Shumaker, S. A., & Chen, J. C. (2019). General and domain-specific cognitive reserve, mild cognitive impairment, and dementia risk in older women. Alzheimer’s and Dementia: Translational Research and Clinical Interventions, 5, 118–128. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trci.2019.02.003 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trci.2019.02.003
Pinho, R. A., Aguiar, A. S., & Radák, Z. (2019). Effects of resistance exercise on cerebral redox regulation and cognition: An interplay between muscle and brain. Antioxidants, 8(11), 529. https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox8110529 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox8110529
Quentin, R., & Cohen, L. G. (2019). Reversing working memory decline in the elderly. Nature Neuroscience, 22(5), 686–688. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41593-019-0386-3 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41593-019-0386-3
Reeves, D., Winter, K., Bleiberg, J., & Kane, R. (2007). ANAM® genogram: Historical perspectives, description, and current endeavors. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 22, 15–37. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acn.2006.10.013 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acn.2006.10.013
Roh, H.-T., Cho, S.-Y., & So, W.-Y. (2020). A cross-sectional study evaluating the effects of resistance exercise on inflammation and neurotrophic factors in elderly women with obesity. Journal of Clinical Medicine, 9(3), 842. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm9030842 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm9030842
Santos, P. R. P. Dos, Cavalcante, B. R., Vieira, A. K. D. S., Guimarães, M. D., Leandro Da Silva, A. M., Armstrong, A. D. C., Carvalho, R. G. D. S., Carvalho, F. O. De, & Souza, M. F. De. (2020). Improving cognitive and physical function through 12-weeks of resistance training in older adults: Randomized controlled trial. Journal of Sports Sciences, 38(17), 1936–1942. https://doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2020.1763740 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2020.1763740
Sebastiani, P., Andersen, S. L., Sweigart, B., Du, M., Cosentino, S., Thyagarajan, B., Christensen, K., Schupf, N., & Perls, T. T. (2020). Patterns of multi-domain cognitive aging in participants of the Long Life Family Study. GeroScience, 42(5), 1335–1350. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11357-020-00202-3 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11357-020-00202-3
Sheoran, S., Vints, W. A. J., Valatkevičienė, K., Kušleikienė, S., Gleiznienė, R., Česnaitienė, V. J., Himmelreich, U., Levin, O., & Masiulis, N. (2023). Strength gains after 12 weeks of resistance training correlate with neurochemical markers of brain health in older adults: A randomized control 1H-MRS study. GeroScience, 45(3), 1837–1855. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11357-023-00732-6 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11357-023-00732-6
Sweeney, J. (2001). Inhibitory control of attention declines more than working memory during normal aging. Neurobiology of Aging, 22(1), 39–47. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0197-4580(00)00175-5 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0197-4580(00)00175-5
Syed-Abdul, M. M. (2020). Benefits of resistance training in older adults. Current Aging Science, 14(1), 5–9. https://doi.org/10.2174/1874609813999201110192221 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2174/1874609813999201110192221
Tayer‐Shifman, O. E., Green, R., Beaton, D. E., Ruttan, L., Wither, J. E., Tartaglia, M. C., Kakvan, M., Lombardi, S., Anderson, N., Su, J., Bonilla, D., Zandy, M., Choi, M. Y., Fritzler, M. J., & Touma, Z. (2020). Validity Evidence for the use of automated neuropsychologic assessment metrics as a screening tool for cognitive impairment in systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Care & Research, 72(12), 1809–1819. https://doi.org/10.1002/acr.24096 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/acr.24096
Thomann, A. E., Berres, M., Goettel, N., Steiner, L. A., & Monsch, A. U. (2020). Enhanced diagnostic accuracy for neurocognitive disorders: A revised cut-off approach for the Montreal Cognitive Assessment. Alzheimer’s Research & Therapy, 12(1), 39. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13195-020-00603-8 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s13195-020-00603-8
Tian, S., Liang, Z., Qiu, F., & Wang, X. (2023). Physical activity on executive function in sedentary individuals: Systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. PLoS ONE, 18(12), e0294251. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0294251 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0294251
Todd, S., Barr, S., Roberts, M., & Passmore, A. P. (2013). Survival in dementia and predictors of mortality: A review. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 28(11), 1109–1124. https://doi.org/10.1002/gps.3946 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/gps.3946
Tsai, C.-L., Pai, M.-C., Ukropec, J., & Ukropcová, B. (2019). Distinctive effects of aerobic and resistance exercise modes on neurocognitive and biochemical changes in individuals with mild cognitive impairment. Current Alzheimer Research, 16(4), 316–332. https://doi.org/10.2174/1567205016666190228125429 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2174/1567205016666190228125429
Vincent, A. S., Roebuck-Spencer, T. M., Fuenzalida, E., & Gilliland, K. (2018). Test–retest reliability and practice effects for the ANAM General Neuropsychological Screening battery. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 32(3), 479–494. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854046.2017.1368716 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/13854046.2017.1368716
Vints, W. A. J., Gökçe, E., Šeikinaitė, J., Kušleikienė, S., Česnaitienė, V. J., Verbunt, J., Levin, O., & Masiulis, N. (2024a). Resistance training’s impact on blood biomarkers and cognitive function in older adults with low and high risk of mild cognitive impairment: A randomized controlled trial. European Review of Aging and Physical Activity, 21(1), 9. https://doi.org/10.1186/s11556-024-00344-9
Vints, W. A. J., Kušleikiene, S., Sheoran, S., Šarkinaite, M., Valatkevičiene, K., Gleizniene, R., Kvedaras, M., Pukenas, K., Himmelreich, U., Cesnaitiene, V. J., Levin, O., Verbunt, J., & Masiulis, N. (2022). Inflammatory blood biomarker kynurenine is linked with elevated neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration in older adults: Evidence from two 1H-MRS post-processing analysis methods. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2022.859772 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2022.859772
Vints, W. A. J., Šeikinaitė, J., Gökçe, E., Kušleikienė, S., Šarkinaite, M., Valatkeviciene, K., Česnaitienė, V. J., Verbunt, J., Levin, O., & Masiulis, N. (2024b). Resistance exercise effects on hippocampus subfield volumes and biomarkers of neuroplasticity and neuroinflammation in older adults with low and high risk of mild cognitive impairment: A randomized controlled trial. GeroScience, 46(4), 3971–3991. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11357-024-01110-6 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s11556-024-00344-9
Wang, L., Zhang, Z., McArdle, J. J., & Salthouse, T. A. (2008). Investigating ceiling effects in longitudinal data analysis. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 43(3), 476–496. https://doi.org/10.1080/00273170802285941 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/00273170802285941
Winblad, B., Palmer, K., Kivipelto, M., Jelic, V., Fratiglioni, L., Wahlund, L. O., Nordberg, A., Bäckman, L., Albert, M., Almkvist, O., Arai, H., Basun, H., Blennow, K., De Leon, M., Decarli, C., Erkinjuntti, T., Giacobini, E., Graff, C., Hardy, J., ... Petersen, R. C. (2004). Mild cognitive impairment – Beyond controversies, towards a consensus: Report of the International Working Group on Mild Cognitive Impairment. Journal of Internal Medicine, 256(3), 240–246. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2796.2004.01380.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2796.2004.01380.x
Wolters, F. J., Chibnik, L. B., Waziry, R., Anderson, R., Berr, C., Beiser, A., Bis, J. C., Blacker, D., Bos, D., Brayne, C., Dartigues, J.-F., Darweesh, S. K. L., Davis-Plourde, K. L., de Wolf, F., Debette, S., Dufouil, C., Fornage, M., Goudsmit, J., Grasset, L., … Hofman, A. (2020). Twenty-seven-year time trends in dementia incidence in Europe and the United States. Neurology, 95(5). https://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0000000000010022 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0000000000010022
Woodhouse, J., Heyanka, D. J., Scott, J., Vincent, A., Roebuck-Spencer, T., Domboski-Davidson, K., O’Mahar, K., & Adams, R. (2013). Efficacy of the ANAM General Neuropsychological Screening battery (ANAM GNS) for detecting neurocognitive impairment in a mixed clinical sample. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 27(3), 376–385. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854046.2012.762427 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/13854046.2012.762427
World Health Organization. (2024, October 1). Ageing and health. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/ageing-and-health
Xu, L., Gu, H., Cai, X., Zhang, Y., Hou, X., Yu, J., & Sun, T. (2023). The effects of exercise for cognitive function in older adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 20(2). https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20021088 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20021088
Yoon, D. H., Lee, J. Y., & Song, W. (2018). Effects of resistance exercise training on cognitive function and physical performance in cognitive frailty: A randomized controlled trial. Journal of Nutrition, Health and Aging, 22(8), 944–951. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12603-018-1090-9 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12603-018-1090-9
Zeng, Y., Wang, J., Cai, X., Zhang, X., Zhang, J., Peng, M., Xiao, D., Ouyang, H., & Yan, F. (2023). Effects of physical activity interventions on executive function in older adults with dementia: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Geriatric Nursing, 51, 369–377. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gerinurse.2023.04.012 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gerinurse.2023.04.012
Zhang, L., Li, B., Yang, J., Wang, F., Tang, Q., & Wang, S. (2020). Meta-analysis: Resistance training improves cognition in mild cognitive impairment. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 41(12), 815–823. https://doi.org/10.1055/a-1186-1272 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1055/a-1186-1272
Zhu, C., Zhou, L., & Zhang, X. (2022). Effects of leisure activities on the cognitive ability of older adults: A latent variable growth model analysis. Frontiers in Psychology, 13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.838878 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.838878
Ziv, G., Levin, O., & Netz, Y. (2024). Selecting an appropriate control group for studying the effects of exercise on cognitive performance. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 72, 102602. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2024.102602 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2024.102602
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2025 Author(s). Published by Lithuanian Sports University.
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
