Baltic Journal of Sport and Health Sciences
Founded in 1968. The journal publishes original research articles in the following areas: Physical Education, Sports Coaching, Sports Pedagogy, Sports Psychology, Sports Sociology, Sports Management, Recreation and Tourism, Sports Physiology, Motor Control and Learning, Sports Biochemistry, Sports Medicine, Physical Activity and Health, Adapted Physical Activity, Sports History, Sports Philosophy, etc.
Effective Playing Time in Women’s Collegiate Volleyball
Background: Limited research addresses variations in the effective playing time (EPT) across sets or matches, particularly within the collegiate female athlete population. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine the EPT and rally characteristics in women’s collegiate volleyball among different sets. Methods: Data were collected from 14 matches (49 sets, 2,094 points) played among six female university teams. Rally duration, rest intervals between rallies and sets, number of touches, rallies, and three-pass sequences were recorded. EPT and work-to-rest ratios were calculated. Rally length was categorised as short (<5 s), medium (5–10 s), or long (>10 s). Results: The results showed that EPT was significantly greater (p < 0.05) in the third and fourth sets compared with the first and second sets. Rally duration, number of touches, and occurrence of three-pass sequences also demonstrated upward trends in later sets. Additionally, the proportion of short rallies was significantly lower in the first three sets compared with the fifth set. Conclusion: These findings suggest that EPT tends to increase in the later sets compared to the initial sets, potentially reflecting increased match intensity as the game progresses. Recognising such patterns can help coaches and practitioners develop more targeted conditioning strategies to meet the physical demands of competition. Keywords: Active playing time, performance analysis, team sports, work to rest ratio, number of touches
Copyright (c) 2026 Author(s). Published by Lithuanian Sports University. https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Let the Music Play: Exploring the Relationship Between Music Listening, Self-Esteem, and Subjective Vitality During Exercise Among College Students
Background: College students often experience heightened stress and mental health challenges. Previous research has suggested that physical activity and music can independently enhance subjective vitality (e.g. psychological well-being) and self-esteem. The purpose of this study was to determine to what extent music impacts college students’ subjective vitality and self-esteem while exercising in a gym or outside through the lens of Self-Determination Theory (SDT). Methods: A quantitative, observational, cross-sectional survey was conducted to investigate the impact of music on college students’ subjective vitality and self-esteem while exercising either in a gym or outdoors. A total of 200 college students completed an online survey measuring constructs related to SDT, self-esteem, and subjective vitality. The proposed model tested seven hypotheses regarding direct and indirect relationships between SDT variables, self-esteem, and subjective vitality. Results: The model explained 56.8% of the variation in self-esteem and 56.2% in subjective vitality. Autonomy and competence demonstrated significant direct effects on subjective vitality and indirect effects mediated by self-esteem. Relatedness influenced subjective vitality indirectly through self-esteem. Significant differences were found between gym and outdoor exercisers, with gym users reporting higher self-esteem and subjective vitality scores. No significant differences were identified between genders. Conclusion: Music positively influences college students’ self-esteem and subjective vitality as psychological well-being during exercise, supporting the application of SDT in this context. Enhancing these psychological outcomes through music-assisted exercise routines may contribute to students’ mental and physical health, academic performance, and personal development. Keywords: students, music, exercise, self-esteem, subjective vitality, Self-Determination Theory
Copyright (c) 2025 Author(s). Published by Lithuanian Sports University. https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
The Kinetics of Cell-Free DNA in Response to External and Internal Factors
Background and objectives: To assess the inflammatory response or muscle damage after exercise, researchers commonly use numerous physiological markers such as creatine kinase (CK), interleukins, and a reduction in muscle function (Souglis et al., 2015; Kamandulis et al., 2021). However, the sensitivity of most of these markers is inadequate for detecting various physiological events such as fatigue, overtraining, muscle damage, adaptation, acute or delayed inflammation. Cell-free DNA (cfDNA) stands as a potential biomarker for assessing exercise load and ensuring training regimes are appropriately tailored to an athlete’s capacity. By monitoring cfDNA, practitioners can identify individuals at risk of overtraining and implement interventions to prevent chronic fatigue and address recovery needs. cfDNA in sports science is in its infancy, yet its short half-life and high sensitivity make it an attractive biomarker (Fatouros et al., 2006; Tug et al., 2017). The general aim of the dissertation was to determine the impact of different internal and external instances, such as 3-week sprint interval training (SIT), increased rectal temperature, and muscle-damaging exercise, on cfDNA kinetics. Methods: Three studies were conducted. Study 1 included nine sessions (three sessions per week over three weeks) of 4–6 cycling bouts (Wingate tests) lasting for 30 s, with 4 min recovery intervals between bouts. In Study 2, each participant completed exertional heating (cycling at 60% V̇O2max until rectal temperature (Tre) reached 39°C) and exogenous heating (lower-body immersion in hot water until Tre reached 39°C) in a randomised cross-over design. There were three groups in Study 3, where each group performed a different number of drop jumps (DJ) (50, 25, 10) at intervals of one every 20 s. All measurements were performed as follows: Study 1 (subjects: young healthy men (n = 10), elderly healthy men (n = 9): Blood samples for cfDNA and lactate were taken, and neuromuscular testing was done after the first and last session. Measurements were done before, post-exercise, post 1 h, and post 24 h. Study 2 (subjects: young healthy men (n = 12): Every increase in Tre of 0.5°C up to 39°C and down to 37.5°C, parameters were documented, including subjective sensation, cardiovascular status, Tre, and blood samples were collected. Study 3 (subjects: young healthy men (DJ-50 group = 14, DJ-25 group = 7, DJ-10 group = 4): Measurements (blood samples, neuromuscular testing, assessment of muscle pain) were done starting from 15 min pre-exercise until several time points to 96 h post-exercise. Results: In Study 1, only young participants exhibited a significant increase in V̇O2max after three weeks of SIT (p = 0.0039). The plasma cfDNA concentration increased significantly (p < 0.001) during exercise in each group. There was a significant decrease between the pre-exercise cfDNA values of the 1st compared with the 9th SIT session in the old group (p = 0.043). In Study 2, the time until a certain Tre was similar between the modalities (no significant interaction effect was detected (F(6, 120.93) = 1.194, p = 0.314). The increase in cfDNA concentration was greater in response to exertional heating than to exogenous heating (Tre × heating modality, F(6, 135.95) = 7.51, p < 0.001). In both heating modalities, cfDNA level increased steadily until Tre reached 39°C (Tre effect, p < 0.01). Norepinephrine response differed between heating methods (heating modality effect, p < 0.001) and was larger during exertional heating. In Study 3, plasma CK activity increased after DJ exercise (time effect: p < 0.001) in the DJ-50 and DJ-25 groups. cfDNA values increased acutely after 50 DJs (p < 0.01) and normalised 90 min post-exercise (p > 0.05). A significant increase in the cfDNA concentration was also noticed after 6 h (p < 0.01), 12 h (p < 0.01), 48 h (p < 0.05), and 72 h (p < 0.01) in the DJ-50 group. There was a significant increase in cfDNA values immediately post-exercise in the DJ-25 group (p = 0.012). Conclusions: The present findings advance the understanding of cfDNA as a biomarker in sports medicine, particularly concerning its responsiveness to different exercise modalities and its potential applications in monitoring physiological stress and adaptation. In Study 1, along with a diminished amount of cfDNA in the elderly, the results report that three weeks of SIT is too short for inducing adaptation in this group. There are, however, signs of an anti-inflammatory response that occurs in the elderly, but future studies are needed to determine these insights. Results from Study 2 suggest that incremental Tre elevation via exogenous heating gradually increases plasma cfDNA concentration in young healthy men. However, cfDNA release appears to be greater following exertional heating than exogenous heating, even at similar Tre and subjective sensation. Study 3 shows that exercise without an accumulation of metabolites can lead to distinct time-course changes in cfDNA levels. Additionally, cfDNA levels respond to muscle-damaging exercise without an accumulation of metabolites in a dose-dependent manner. Considering that blood markers such as CK appear elevated in the blood only after several hours or days after a single bout of muscle-damaging exercise, cfDNA may provide advantages over CK as a marker of inflammation responding to acute and secondary inflammatory processes in healthy subjects.
The Impact of Obesity on Skeletal Muscle Morphology, Mechanical Properties and Functional Implications
Background and Objectives: Obesity is a growing global epidemic associated not only with metabolic and cardiovascular disorders but also with impairments in skeletal muscle and tendon integrity (Abate et al., 2016; Lui & Yung, 2021; Tallis et al., 2018; Tomlinson et al., 2016; Wearing et al., 2006). While the metabolic consequences of obesity are well described (Blüher, 2019), its impact on the structural and mechanical properties of musculotendinous tissues and their functional implications has remained underexplored. The doctoral thesis investigated how obesity alters the morphology, material properties, and function of the muscle–tendon unit (MTU), aiming to clarify the mechanisms that contribute to reduced movement efficiency, tissue fragility, and impaired functional capacity. Methods: The dissertation comprised four interrelated experimental studies using both animal and human models, following a translational and multiscale approach to investigate the mechanical, structural, and functional consequences of obesity on the MTU and respiratory system. Ethical approval was obtained for animal (Ref. No. G2-255) and human studies (Ref. No. 2023-BE10-0001), and all procedures complied with institutional and international ethical standards. In the animal studies, male C57BL/6J mice were exposed to either an obesogenic high-fat diet or a standard control diet to establish a model of diet-induced obesity. Study I characterised the passive mechanical properties of isolated skeletal muscle and adipose tissue in healthy mice using in vitro mechanical testing, providing baseline data on tissue-specific mechanical behaviour. Study II employed the diet-induced obesity mouse model to investigate obesity-related structural and mechanical remodelling of skeletal muscle, tendon, and the myotendinous junction through comprehensive biomechanical testing, histological analysis, and molecular profiling. The human studies extended these mechanistic findings to functional outcomes. Participants were sedentary men aged 30–50 years classified as class I obese (BMI: 30.0–34.9 kg/m²) or normal-weight controls (BMI: 18.5–24.9 kg/m²). Study III examined the effects of obesity on triceps surae MTU morphology, passive mechanical properties, muscle contractile function, and locomotor efficiency during repeated calf raise exercise. Study IV investigated the impact of obesity on respiratory system function, including lung capacity, respiratory muscle strength, breathing patterns, and diaphragm morphology and contractile function. Animal experiments included in vitro mechanical testing of isolated muscles and tendons to assess passive mechanical properties and contraction–relaxation capacity and dynamics, combined with histological evaluation and protein expression analyses to characterise structural remodelling and molecular signalling pathways. Human assessments employed non-invasive techniques, including ultrasonography to evaluate muscle and tendon morphology; dynamometry and surface electromyography to assess MTU mechanical properties and neuromuscular function; spirometry to measure respiratory function; indirect calorimetry to determine metabolic cost; and motion analysis to evaluate locomotor performance and efficiency. Results: Study I demonstrated that skeletal muscle and adipose tissues exhibit distinct passive mechanical properties. Skeletal muscle showed significantly greater modulus and lower hysteresis compared to adipose tissues (p < 0.05), indicating greater resistance to deformation and more efficient elastic energy storage. Study II showed that diet-induced obesity caused significant structural and molecular remodelling of the MTU. Obese mice exhibited increased connective tissue infiltration and elevated expression of TGF-β1 and Periostin (p < 0.05). These alterations were associated with increased tissue fragility and viscosity, with higher modulus in skeletal muscle but lower modulus in tendons (p < 0.05). Obese muscles also demonstrated reduced specific force and slower contraction–relaxation kinetics (p < 0.05). In humans, Study III demonstrated that the triceps surae MTU of individuals with obesity was characterised by increased adipose infiltration, stiffness, and hysteresis (p < 0.05), accompanied by reduced relative muscle strength (p < 0.05) and impaired calf-raise performance and movement efficiency (p < 0.05). Study IV further confirmed the detrimental effects of obesity on respiratory function, showing reduced ventilatory capacity, respiratory muscle strength, and diaphragm function (p < 0.05). These impairments were associated with altered breathing patterns, characterised by increased respiratory rate and reduced tidal volume for a given minute ventilation in individuals with obesity (p < 0.05). Conclusions: Taken together, these findings provide converging evidence that obesity promotes structural and biochemical remodelling of musculotendinous tissues, including adipose infiltration, fibrotic tissue accumulation with increased collagen cross-linking and disrupted extracellular matrix organisation. Functionally, these alterations modify tissue passive mechanical behaviour, impair force production–relaxation dynamics, increase mechanical energy dissipation, and compromise tissue resilience. Consequently, individuals with obesity may experience muscle weakness, increased energy cost of movement, reduced mobility, a less efficient breathing pattern, early fatigue, and MTU fragility, all of which contribute to a decline in physical function and quality of life. The thesis underlined the importance of recognising obesity not only as a metabolic disease but also as a condition of musculoskeletal dysfunction. By elucidating the mechanical, structural, and functional consequences of obesity-induced musculotendinous remodelling, these findings provide a foundation for targeted preventive and rehabilitative strategies aimed at preserving or restoring movement efficiency and musculoskeletal health in individuals with obesity. Keywords: Obesity, skeletal muscle, mechanobiology, muscle physiology, tendon
Reliability and Performance Correlates of Life-Size Reactive Agility Test in Netball Players
Reactive agility is an important component in many team sports, with human stimulus considered more realistic for performance assessment than video- or light-based stimulus testing. This study aimed to evaluate the reliability of a newly adopted netball specific Life-Size Reactive Agility Test (LSRAT), and to determine the correlation between action accuracy and total time. Twenty young female netball players, mean age = 15.1 ± 1.7 years, completed two test conditions using a live tester with netball-specific movements: (a) the tester acted as an opponent by delivering an offensive stimulus for the subject to react to; and (b) the tester acted as a teammate by delivering a ball pass as a stimulus to which the subject had to react by receiving the pass. Results showed very high reliability for total time in both test conditions, with Pearson’s correlation coefficient (Pearson’s r) values of 0.90–0.94, and intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) values of 0.91–0.93. However, action accuracy for both subjects and testers yielded moderate to low Pearson’s r and ICC values across both test conditions. The usefulness of the test in detecting moderate performance changes was evaluated as ‘good’ for the total time in both test conditions. In contrast, subject action accuracy was rated from ‘good’ to ‘marginal’, while tester action accuracy was rated as ‘marginal’ in both test conditions. In conclusion, the LSRAT is a reliable tool for measuring reactive agility in netball players while action accuracy measures may require further refinement for optimal utility in coaching and research. Keywords: Netball, reactive agility, decision making, reactive agility testing, speed
Measuring the Maturity of Asset-Based Community Development: Findings and Implications Applied in a Community Walking Programme
Background: Asset-Based Community Development (ABCD) mobilises the strengths of individuals, associations, institutions, and shared spaces to enhance community capacity. Empirical evidence quantifying ABCD maturity remains limited. This study introduces and applies the ABCD Maturity Index to examine baseline patterns, subgroup differences, and changes during participation in Beat the Street, a community-wide, gamified physical activity programme. Methods: A matched-pairs pre–post design was used with adult participants (≥18 years) across six UK locations (March–June 2024). The ABCD Maturity Index measures six domains representing core ABCD foundations: Individuals, Associations, Institutions, Place-based assets, Connections, and Stories. Reliability and construct validity were evaluated using internal consistency and subgroup comparisons. McNemar’s test assessed paired change in dichotomised agreement scores. Results: Internal consistency was good (Cronbach’s α = 0.80–0.83). At baseline (n = 5,734), highest agreement was for Place-based assets (76.3%) and lowest for Stories (29.4%). ABCD maturity was lower among participants from more deprived areas, with disabilities, or long-term conditions. Matched-pair analysis (n = 1,503) showed a mean increase of 5.4 percentage points (p < 0.05), with largest gains in Stories (+7.8 pp) and Institutions (+7.5 pp). Conclusion: The ABCD Maturity Index provides a reliable and valid framework for assessing community capacity and tracking change. Its application revealed both structural inequalities and the potential for inclusive, place-based interventions to strengthen ABCD maturity, particularly among groups starting from lower baselines. Keywords: Asset-Based Community Development (ABCD), community capacity, social capital, place-based intervention
An Exploration of Flow State and Optimal Experience as a Way for Resonance
This article-essay will first establish theoretical links with some of the foundations of Rosa’s work, and then present a case study of a physical activity that demonstrates the manifestation of resonance across several dimensions. We start from elements of theoretical concordance with flow theory to discuss the scope and contributions of Rosa’s theory of resonance, and then illustrate these remarks with empirical data on flowart practice, which we think provides knowledge that is both rich and novel in relation to the experience of resonance. Keywords: Flowart, theory of resonance, physical activity
S14-2: A Scoping Review of Research About Women in Sport: A Perspective From the Island of Ireland
Purpose: Women remain under-represented in many sport settings, and they are particularly under-represented in research. Between 2014 and 2020, only 34% of participants in sport and exercise science studies were female, with less than 10% of studies focused solely on females (Cowley et al., 2021). Additionally, there is often a lack of collective thinking and action across universities and the sport sector in research about women in sport, including on the island of Ireland. Methods: To support the strategic development of research within this region, we conducted a scoping review to systematically identify, analyse, and synthesise existing literature about women in sport on the island of Ireland. Research about women in sport in Ireland has grown significantly over the last five years. Results: Primary topics fell into five main areas: injury (k = 86), sport performance (k = 72), sport, health, and wellbeing (k = 65), society and culture (k = 38), and coaching and professional practice (k = 13). We identified numerous trends, including the dominance of cross-sectional research designs and quantitative methods, tendency to conduct research through a monodisciplinary lens, and inconsistent reporting of sex/gender in published literature. Conclusion: While this review highlights research priorities specific to the island of Ireland, it offers a template for other regions to replicate and some relevant learning for researchers worldwide in their respective and collective efforts to improve the experiences of women in sport. We have developed our work into a public facing report and other dissemination materials to advocate for change.
S10-3: Updating the German Recommendations for Physical Activity. Moving Beyond Quantitative Recommendations?
Background: Physical activity (PA) guidelines have traditionally focused on quantitative targets, such as recommending at least 150 minutes of PA per week. However, qualitative aspects (like exercising in green spaces or being active with meaningful others) may also contribute to the health benefits of PA but are rarely addressed in existing guidelines. The German Recommendations for Physical Activity and Physical Activity Promotion (Rütten & Pfeifer, 2016) are currently being updated. In this context, the study explores how the predominantly quantitative focus can be expanded to include qualitative dimensions of PA. Methods: The guideline update follows the GRADE-ADOLOPMENT approach (Klugar et al., 2024). To incorporate qualitative aspects of PA, we first define the scope (Step 1) and prioritise relevant key questions, especially regarding PA quality – based on Vella et al. (2023) and expert consultation (Step 2). In Step 3, recent national PA guidelines are identified and assessed using the AGREE II instrument (with scores of ≥60% in domains 1–3 and an accompanying evidence update). Recommendations from these sources are then matched to the prioritised questions (Step 4) to identify existing relevant recommendations (Step 5). Where necessary, evidence updates are performed (Step 6). Results: New German PA recommendations will be developed for several target groups, including children, adults, older adults, the oldest old, individuals with disabilities, and adults with non-communicable diseases (Step 1). Key questions regarding the quality aspects of PA (Step 2) include whether health-related outcomes differ by PA domain, individual preferences, or the social and physical environment. Of 66 guidelines reviewed, 11 were included (Step 3). An initial content analysis revealed that the only quality aspect addressed was the comparison between workplace PA and PA in other domains (Steps 4 and 5). The next step (Step 6) is to determine which evidence updates on PA quality aspects will be conducted. Conclusion: This study analyses the evidence base for a potential shift of the German PA Recommendations from a purely quantitative approach towards a broader, more holistic perspective. While integrating qualitative aspects of PA presents challenges, it also offers significant potential to enhance future PA guidelines. Funding Source: German Ministry of Health. Keywords: Physical activity guidelines, quality, context
S07-3: Holistic Promotion of Physical Activity Based on Physical Literacy: Results and Implications of the PLACE Intervention
Purpose: Although the concept of physical literacy (PL) combines physical, cognitive, and affective aspects into a holistic perspective for promoting active lifestyles and has gained increasing importance internationally, PL-based interventions and practical findings are still in their infancy in Germany. The goal of the present study was to evaluate the main phase of an extracurricular PL intervention (PLACE study) to promote health-enhancing physical activity in eight to ten-year-old children in different districts of Bremen, Germany (Pöppel et al., 2024). Methods: We used an explanatory sequential mixed-methods design, built on five core dimensions derived from the inter-/national discussion on criteria for quality experiences in students (e.g. Ní Chróinín et al., 2018), which were assessed by comparing the intervention with regular physical education (PE). In group interviews with 40 children, we started with nonverbal reactions to quantitatively assess individual judgements along the five criteria, followed by qualitative statements to elicit verbal explanations to children’s decisions. The collected data were analysed using binomial tests and supplemented with qualitative findings. Results: The children reported no differences between the PL intervention and compulsory PE for the dimensions ‘social interaction’, ‘improvement of motor skills’, and ‘teaching and classroom management’ (z ≤ 1.67, p ≥. 095). However, the PL intervention was superior in the dimensions ‘cognitive activation’ (z = 3.68, p <. 001) and ‘affective approach to sport’ (z = 2.47, p = .014). Taking into account the qualitative data, the quantitative results can be explained by more in-depth reflection phases (‘cognitive activation’) and a mix of teaching elements (‘affective approach to sport’). In almost all dimensions, the principle of ‘voice and choice’ was perceived as very beneficial. Conclusion: The findings highlighted co-design and respect for individuality as supportive conditions for extracurricular interventions to promote PL-based child-centred physical activity and healthy, active lifestyles. Funding/Support Source: Foundation “Stiftung Aktion Hilfe für Kinder”.
Two Decades of HEPA Europe: Advancing Physical Activity Promotion Across the European Region
Background: The Health-Enhancing Physical Activity (HEPA) Europe network was established in 2005 to promote physical activity (PA) related research, policy, and practice across the World Health Organization (WHO) European Region. It was founded on early recognition of the essential role of regular PA for health, contributing to the prevention of non-communicable diseases and the promotion of mental, physical, and social wellbeing but before related European policy frameworks emerged. Nature of the Network: Formally launched under the auspices of the WHO Regional Office for Europe (WHO/Europe), HEPA Europe has grown into a multidisciplinary and cross-sectoral network of over 250 member institutions from 41 WHO European member states. These include governmental bodies, academic institutions, and non-governmental organisations working in fields such as PA, sport, health, education, urban planning, and transport. The network supports collaboration through working groups, an annual conference, and meetings that facilitate the exchange of knowledge, best practices, consortia building for European Union (EU) funded projects, and policy development. It provides tools and evidence for policy and practice to address the insufficient levels of PA and increasing sedentary behaviour across the WHO European Region. Recent Developments: In the recent years, HEPA Europe has strengthened its position by creating an early career development section to support young scientists and professionals at the beginning of their careers in the field of PA promotion. In addition, HEPA Europe worked actively to collaborate with the EU PA Focal Points network, created in 2014, to support implementation of the HEPA Monitoring Framework, established to monitor the implementation of the EU PA Guidelines. HEPA Europe must broaden engagement across sectors and regions, improve sustainability, and strengthen the research–policy–practice link to maintain its impact. Keywords: Network, exercise, public health, governance
The Effects of Head-and-Neck Temperature Manipulation and Motor Task Type on Central and Peripheral Fatigue, Motor Accuracy, and Stress-Related Blood Markers in Men With Multiple Sclerosis
Background and objectives: Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic neurological disorder characterised by immune-mediated demyelination and axonal degeneration, leading to impaired motor control, fatigue, and reduced quality of life (Dobson & Giovannoni, 2019). Fatigue in MS arises from both central and peripheral mechanisms, with central fatigue linked to impaired neural drive and peripheral fatigue reflecting reduced muscle contractility (Tornero-Aguilera et al., 2022). Thermal stress further exacerbates fatigue in people with MS (PwMS), with heat impairing neural conduction and cooling, showing potential to improve performance and reduce exertion (Flensner et al., 2011; Grahn et al., 2008). The head and neck are highly thermosensitive regions, making them strategic sites for targeted thermal interventions (Desruelle & Candas, 2000). While cooling may enhance central motor drive and stress regulation via activation of cold-sensitive TRP channels (Gordon et al., 2020; Thapa et al., 2021), heating could worsen fatigue in thermally sensitive PwMS (Christogianni et al., 2018). Furthermore, motor task complexity – ranging from constant to unpredictable force demands – modulates central and peripheral fatigue expression (Kyguolienė et al., 2018; Taylor & Gandevia, 2008). However, the interactive effects of localised head-and-neck cooling or heating with different task complexities under thermoneutral conditions remain poorly understood. The dissertation aimed to address these gaps by investigating how localised thermal modulation influences central and peripheral fatigue, perceived exertion, and hormonal responses during submaximal isometric exercise in men with MS and healthy controls, providing novel insights for rehabilitation and fatigue management strategies. Methods: The dissertation comprised four randomised crossover studies with a minimum seven-day washout designed to evaluate the effects of localised head-and-neck cooling (18°C) and heating (44 ± 0.5°C) on central and peripheral fatigue during submaximal isometric knee-extensor exercise in men with relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis (RRMS) and healthy controls. Ethical approval was obtained (BE-2-35), and the trial was registered (NCT06370403). Participants were men aged 18–45 years with RRMS or healthy controls. Studies I (COLD) and II (HEAT) were designed as separate investigations, each comparing localised head-and-neck cooling (18°C) or heating (44 ± 0.5°C) with a non-thermal control, to assess fatigue, neuromuscular performance, muscle contractility, and stress-related hormonal responses during 100 intermittent submaximal isometric contractions. Study III (COLD + TASKS) investigated how head-and-neck cooling interacts with motor task complexity (constant, predictable, unpredictable) to modulate neuromuscular responses, while Study IV (HEAT + TASKS) evaluated head-and-neck heating across the same task structures. Neuromuscular function was assessed via isokinetic dynamometry and surface EMG of the vastus lateralis, with outcomes including maximal voluntary contraction (MVC), central activation ratio (CAR), electrically evoked torque, contractile properties, and EMG root mean square (EMGrms). Muscle temperature was recorded intramuscularly, and venous blood samples were analysed for cortisol, prolactin, and dopamine. Perceived exertion was rated using the Borg scale, and motor accuracy was quantified via constant and absolute errors. Data were analysed using repeated-measures and mixed-design ANOVA with Bonferroni corrections, with significance set at p < 0.05. Results: Study I (COLD): Head-and-neck cooling improved central activation ratio (CAR) immediately post-exercise (p = 0.048) and during recovery (p = 0.017) and preserved submaximal torque at 25–50% MVC (p = 0.038). However, cooling increased force variability and error (p = 0.041). It also attenuated cortisol elevations (p = 0.029) and maintained higher dopamine in healthy men (p = 0.032). Study II (HEAT): Head-and-neck heating reduced MVC torque more than control (p < 0.001) and lowered CAR (p < 0.04), particularly in men with MS. Evoked force at 20 Hz (P20) and 100 Hz (P100) declined (p < 0.04 and p < 0.03), along with slower relaxation rates in MS. Muscle temperature increased under heating (p < 0.001), dopamine rose in healthy men (p < 0.03), and prolactin increased in healthy men but less so in MS (p < 0.001 and p < 0.04). Study III (COLD + TASKS): Head-and-neck cooling enhanced MVC under unpredictable tasks (p = 0.047) and improved CAR across constant, predictable, and unpredictable tasks (p = 0.003–0.019). In contrast, evoked force production (P20, P100) decreased during unpredictable tasks (p = 0.016–0.026), indicating greater peripheral fatigue despite improved central drive. Cortisol was also lower post-exercise in predictable tasks (p = 0.016), reflecting improved recovery. Study IV (HEAT + TASKS): Head-and-neck heating impaired central drive (reduced CAR) during and after unpredictable tasks and one hour post constant task (p < 0.05). MVC remained lower post-exercise under constant and unpredictable tasks (p < 0.015). Cortisol was lower at baseline (unpredictable, p = 0.002) and after predictable tasks (p = 0.032); prolactin increased with exercise (p < 0.05), dopamine was unchanged, and torque accuracy declined, particularly at 50% MVC during unpredictable tasks (p = 0.003–0.032). Conclusions: The present investigations demonstrate that local head-and-neck cooling and heating have distinct, task-dependent effects on central and peripheral fatigue in men with MS during submaximal exercise. For instance, Studies I and III showed that head-and-neck cooling (18°C) enhanced central activation, improved CAR and perceived exertion, and increased intramuscular temperature, with the greatest benefits observed during unpredictable tasks. Cooling also amplified peripheral fatigue, reflected by greater reductions in electrically induced torque and contractility, while motor accuracy, EMGrms amplitude, and stress-related blood markers remained largely unaffected. In contrast, Studies II and IV revealed that head-and-neck heating (44°C) impaired central drive, reduced MVC and CAR, and elevated perceived effort, particularly in unpredictable and high-intensity tasks (50% and 75% MVC). Heating attenuated peripheral fatigue by preserving the rate of force development and the rate of muscle relaxation but reduced muscle contractility during unpredictable tasks, lowered cortisol and prolactin levels, and left EMGrms unchanged. Overall, these findings indicate that local thermal modulation can differentially influence exercise performance and fatigability in men with MS, with more pronounced effects than in healthy individuals, and that task type plays a key role in mediating these responses. Keywords: thermoregulation, motor performance, exercise, task variability, torque
The Impact of Participants’ Motivations for Engaging in Physical Activity on Their Reaction Time
Reaction time (RT) is a measure of the time elapsed between the application of a stimulus and the subsequent response. It is considered an indirect indicator of the central nervous system’s processing speed. Various factors, including body weight and physical activity, influence RT. Another factor that has not been investigated before is the effect of motivations for engaging in physical activity on motor reaction time, as measured by simple reaction time and recognition scores, indicated by the number of hits. Thus, the current study aimed to examine the impact of motivation in physical activity on RT and the number of hits. The study was conducted on 60 healthy volunteers aged 18–60 years (mean ± SD, 27.66 ± 8.31 years) who participated in regular physical activity. A headset for the virtual reality base station, controllers, and the Rezzil game were used to determine the RT. Additionally, the participants’ motives for engaging in physical activity were recorded using the Leisure Motivation Scale. It was found that the RT of participants was influenced by different leisure motivation categories, particularly for males. Body mass index (BMI) also affected the RT of participants, especially in the normal and overweight groups. However, the number of hits was not influenced by such motivations. These results showed that their motivations could influence the RT of individuals who participate in physical activity. Intrinsic motivations for physical activity, like personal enjoyment, reported slower RT than extrinsic motivations like ego or competition. Keywords: BMI, gender, motivation, physical activity, reaction time
Background: This study examines the issue of Olympic values and doping in sport. The first aim of this pilot study was to explore athletes’ and coaches’ perceptions of the values associated with the Olympic Games and their attitudes towards doping. The second aim was to examine the relationship between the perceived Olympic values and attitudes towards doping in sport. Methods: Fifty-three athletes (mean age 19.35, SD = 4.28; 45.3% male) and 52 coaches from Uzbekistan (mean age 32.00, SD = 9.91; 46.2% male) participated in this pilot study by filling out an online survey. Results: The results showed that the value dimension ‘achievement in competition’ was most strongly associated with the Olympic Games. Participants held a more positive perception of the Olympics but were less positive towards the International Olympic Committee (IOC). The findings further revealed that the participants exhibited slightly positive attitudes towards doping in sport. However, it was found that the perceptions of values related to the Olympic Games were not related, as the attitudes towards the Olympic Games were a significant negative predictor of attitudes towards doping (β = –0.17, p < 0.05). In contrast, perceived corruption of the IOC emerged as a significant positive predictor (β = 0.62, p < 0.05). Conclusion: The study revealed a positive attitude among athletes and coaches towards the Olympic values; however, the perception of these values was not related to attitudes towards doping in sport. More significant factors in predicting attitudes towards doping were participants’ views of the Olympic Games themselves and their evaluation of the IOC as an organisation. Keywords: values, Olympic Games, International Olympic Committee, doping in sport
Assessment of the Psychological Wellbeing of Student-Athletes and Non-Athletes at the University of Ilorin, Nigeria
This study assessed the psychological wellbeing of student-athletes and non-athletes at the University of Ilorin, employing a descriptive research design. The population included all University’s students, with 149 participants selected through a multi-stage sampling process. Stratified sampling categorised students into athletes (77) and non-athletes (72) chosen via random sampling. Data were collected using the General Health Questionnaire (GHQ-12), validated with Pearson’s product-moment correlation reliability coefficient of .73. Descriptive statistics, including frequency counts and percentages, addressed research questions, while an independent samples t test at a .05 alpha level was used to test hypotheses. The findings revealed no significant difference in psychological wellbeing between student-athletes and non-athletes. Additionally, the perception of the impact of sport on psychological wellbeing did not differ between the groups. The study concluded that both student-athletes and non-athletes at the University of Ilorin exhibit similar psychological wellbeing, and their views on the influence of sport on wellbeing are consistent regardless of participation. These findings suggest that sport participation does not uniquely affect psychological wellbeing in this context, emphasising the importance of universal stress management practices for all students. To enhance psychological health, the study recommends that both groups engage in stress-reducing activities such as meditation, deep breathing, or yoga. Keywords: psychological wellbeing, student-athlete, non-athlete, health status, University of Ilorin
HIIT and Aloe Vera Supplementation Improve METRNL Levels, Reduce Oxidative Stress, and Enhance Antioxidant Status in Men With Type 2 Diabetes
Background: Hyperglycaemia, oxidative stress, and chronic inflammation play critical roles in the pathogenesis and progression of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). This study aimed to evaluate the effects of high-intensity interval training (HIIT), Aloe vera supplementation, and their combination on Meteorin-like (METRNL) protein levels, oxidative stress markers, and antioxidant status in men with T2DM. Methods: In this semi-experimental study, 44 men with T2DM (aged 25–40 years) were randomly assigned to one of four groups (n = 11 per group): (1) HIIT, (2) Aloe vera supplementation, (3) HIIT + Aloe vera, and (4) Control. The HIIT protocol was conducted three times per week for 12 weeks. Participants in the Aloe vera groups received two 100 mg capsules of Aloe vera gel powder daily, one in the morning upon waking and one after dinner. Fasting blood samples were collected before and after the intervention. Data were analysed using two-way repeated-measures ANOVA, paired-sample t-tests, and Bonferroni post hoc comparisons. Results: HIIT, Aloe vera supplementation, and their combination significantly increased METRNL, glutathione peroxidase (GPx), superoxide dismutase (SOD), and total antioxidant capacity (TAC), while significantly reducing malondialdehyde (MDA) levels compared with the control group (p < 0.001). The HIIT + Aloe vera group demonstrated the greatest improvements across all markers, followed by HIIT alone, while Aloe vera alone produced moderate but significant effects. Conclusion: Both HIIT and Aloe vera supplementation independently improved antioxidant defence and reduced oxidative stress in men with T2DM, however, their combination elicited the most pronounced benefits, suggesting a synergistic effect. These findings support integrating structured exercise with phototherapeutic supplementation as a complementary strategy to enhance metabolic health in T2DM. Keywords: anaerobic, metabolic inflammation, adipokines, complementary treatment
The Effect of Temperature Manipulation on Skeletal Muscle Function and Thermal Stress Responses in Young Males
Background and objectives: Temperature manipulation, through heating and cooling strategies such as hot or cold water immersion (HWI, CWI) or exertional heating, alters body temperature and can influence muscle function, metabolic activity, recovery, and thermal stress responses (Cramer et al., 2022; Rodrigues et al., 2022; Versey et al., 2013). These interventions can elevate or reduce core and muscle temperature (Tmu), leading to distinct effects on muscle contractility, fatigue, recovery, and endocrine responses (Bergh & Ekblom, 1979; Cheng et al., 2017; Morton et al., 2007; Mündel et al., 2006). Prolactin is often used as an indirect marker of central fatigue and heat-related stress (Mündel et al., 2006), however, it is unclear whether endocrine responses differ when core temperature increases are closely matched but skin temperature varies between active (exercise-induced, Exer-H) and passive (exogenous, Exo-H) heating. The mechanisms underlying neuromuscular and thermal stress responses remain unclear, particularly regarding the influence of exposure duration and differences between active and passive heating modalities. The general aim of the dissertation was to determine the effects of heating and cooling of varying durations on skeletal muscle function and thermal stress responses in recreationally active young males. Methods: Four studies were conducted. In Study I, a randomised crossover design was used, in which participants completed both active (exercise-induced) heating (cycling at 60% V̇O2max until rectal temperature (Trec) reached 39°C) and passive (exogenous) heating (lower-body immersion in hot water until Trec reached 39°C). Study II comprised four randomised cross-over experimental trials across two phases: a single exposure phase (SP) for 45 min and an intermittent/prolonged exposure phase (IPP) for 300 min, each including control sitting (CON) and hot water immersion (HWI at 44–45°C up to the waist) performed in random order and separated by at least one week, with muscle force and contractile properties assessed during the experiments. Study III followed the same design as Study II, but used cold water immersion (CWI at 10°C up to the waist) instead of HWI. Study IV combined the protocols of Studies II and III, with participants completing six experimental trials: acute (CON, HWI, CWI) and intermittent/prolonged (CON, HWI, CWI), along with additional assessments of muscle force recovery. Study I (subjects: young healthy males (n = 14, age: 5 ± 4.1 years): measurements were taken at 0.5°C increase in Trec up to 39°C and during the subsequent decrease down to 37.5°C, including muscle temperature, skin temperature (Tsk), rectal temperature, blood samples for prolactin concentration assessment, and thermal perceptions. Studies II and III (subjects: recreationally active males (n = 12, age: 27.2 ± 6.6 years). Single (SP) and intermittent/prolonged (IPP) hot water (HWI) or cold water (CWI) immersion. During intermittent/prolonged CWI phase, two additional 15 min immersions were added at 165 min and 255 min, while during intermittent/prolonged HWI, eight additional bouts of HWI were added after 75, 105, 135, 165, 195, 225, 255, and 285 min. Participants underwent measurements of body composition, cardiovascular parameters (heart rate, blood pressure), rectal (Trec) and muscle (Tmu) temperature, and neuromuscular function (P20, P100, TT, maximal voluntary isometric contraction (MVIC), dynamic knee exercises) at baseline and multiple time points during single and intermittent/prolonged immersion. Both phases concluded with a fatiguing protocol of 100 electrical stimulation trains to the knee extensors. Study IV (subjects: recreationally active males (n = 10, age: 1 ± 6.8 years). The participants for Study IV are a subset from studies II and III. Assessed the effects of acute and prolonged temperature exposure on muscle recovery, including neuromuscular testing 3 min after fatiguing exercise. Results: In Study I, the Δ changes in prolactin concentration were larger in Exo-H compared to Exer-H during both the heating phase (P = 0.011) and post-heating (P = 0.009) phases. The increase in Tsk Calf and Tsk Thigh was larger in Exo-H compared to Exer-H during the heating phase (P < 0.001) and smaller but significant differences were observed in Tsk Shoulder and Forehead (P < 0.01). In Study II (HWI), muscle temperature increased at all depths (~38–38.5°C) and remained elevated during SP and IPP (condition effect, P < 0.001). P100 torque was not affected by single and intermittent/prolonged condition, while half-relaxation time (HRT) decreased compared to control at the end of the single phase (P < 0.008) and over the intermittent/prolonged phase (group effect: P = 0.002) with no differences in Δ changes between single and intermittent/prolonged conditions (P ≤ 0.008). In Study III (CWI), Tmu (at the three depths) were similarly reduced in CWI compared with CON at the end of the single phase and at 60 min during the intermittent/prolonged phase (P < 0.05), remaining reduced until the end of the intermittent/prolonged phase (P < 0.05). P100 was lower in CWI than in CON at the end of the single phase (P < 0.01) and only at 60 min during the intermittent/prolonged phase (P < 0.05), with larger Δ changes reductions in SP-CWI compared to IPP-CWI (P = 0.02). HRT was higher in CWI than CON at the end of the single phase (P < 0.01) and showed a significant group effect over the intermittent/prolonged protocol (P = 0.03), with Δ changes smaller in IPP-CWI than SP-CWI (P < 0.05). In Study IV, MVIC remained significantly lower after 3 min in single CON and HWI, and in all intermittent/prolonged protocol groups (P < 0.05). Central activation ratio (CAR) remained significantly reduced in HWI during the intermittent/prolonged phase at the end of the bath and after 3 min of recovery (P < 0.05). Conclusions: The findings indicate that Exo-H elicits greater prolactin responses than Exer-H, despite a similarly matched elevation of Trec, likely due to larger lower-limb skin temperature elevations, while thermal perceptions remain similar between conditions. Single or intermittent/prolonged HWI enhances muscle contractile properties and relaxation in the unfatigued state without impairing muscle force, and prolonged exposure does not further augment these effects under moderate thermal stress. In contrast, intermittent/prolonged CWI produces a less pronounced fast-to-slow contractile transition than single immersion, likely due to reduced vasoconstriction and maintained superficial muscle perfusion. Although HWI effectively increases body temperature, it may significantly impair neuromuscular recovery compared with CWI or passive rest. Keywords: hot-water immersion, cold-water immersion, temperature, thermal stress, neuromuscular function
Pulmonary Oxygen Uptake Kinetics Assessment in Basketball-Trained Boys During Early Adolescence
Background: Dynamic change of the pulmonary oxygen uptake is one of the core parameters determining the bodies’ adaptability to the varying physical load. It is equally important in both everyday life and sports. Regardless of the importance, this physiological mechanism is understudied, especially in younger population. Therefore, the aim of this study was to examine oxygen uptake kinetics at the onset and offset of exercise in terms of basketball training and maturity level in adolescent boys. Methods: Our subjects were 28 basketball-trained (BT) and 22 actively untrained (UT) boys (average age: 11.83 ± 0.43 years). Subjects performed 6-minute-long constant speed walking tests on a treadmill and a static recovery afterwards with a 1-year interval between the sessions to determine oxygen uptake, heart rate, and muscle oxygenation time constants and other parameters. Maturity level was determined by the maturity offset. Results: Basketball-trained group showed faster oxygen uptake kinetics (1st session: 13.10 ± 2.68 s and 15.02 ± 2.96 s in basketballers and control-group boys, respectively; 2nd session: 12.02 ± 2.86 s and 14.07 ± 4.18 s) during both testing sessions, while heart rate kinetics were faster in basketballers only during the 1st session (28.15 ± 10.59 s compared to 37.18 ± 15.23 s). Maturity level in both groups correlated with some of the kinetics parameters during the 2nd session. Conclusion: Young basketballers possess a faster on-transient oxygen uptake kinetics compared to their untrained peers because of the improved oxygen delivery and utilisation. A possible maturational threshold regarding pulmonary oxygen uptake kinetics in adolescents should be investigated in the future. Keywords: team sports, physical fitness, time constant, aerobic kinetics
Resistance Training and Muscle-Brain Crosstalk: Implications for Cognitive Decline in Aging and Spinal Cord Injury
Background and objectives: Exerkines are signalling factors that are released from organs throughout the body during physical exercise (El-Sayes et al., 2019). Some of these exerkines are thought to contribute to the well-documented benefits of exercise on brain health and cognitive function, potentially delaying age-related cognitive decline (Erickson et al., 2011). However, research is still far from establishing a mechanism-based, evidence-driven exercise programme to prevent such decline. To date, most studies have focused on endurance training, leaving other training modalities underexplored. Moreover, few studies have simultaneously examined exercise-induced effects on blood, brain, and cognitive domains, limiting more holistic understanding of the underlying mechanisms. Research has also primarily involved healthy adults, whereas older adults at risk of Mild Cognitive Impairment (MCI) are less frequently studied. Importantly, the effects of exercise on cognition have never been investigated in persons with Spinal Cord Injury (SCI), a population with an elevated risk of age-related cognitive decline and dementia. The primary objective of the dissertation was therefore to gain a more comprehensive understanding of the mechanisms underlying the beneficial effects of exercise training, specifically resistance exercise in older adults and Neuromuscular Electrical Stimulation (NMES) in individuals with SCI, on brain health and cognitive function, with a particular focus on the role of exerkines in (exercise-induced) neuroplasticity. Methods: Eleven studies were conducted. Study 1 was a literature review describing exerkine release following acute and chronic endurance or resistance exercise and their effects on neuroplasticity via long-term synaptic potentiation. Study 2 summarised the findings from transcriptome and secretome studies identifying muscle-derived exerkines (myokines). Studies 3 and 4 were cross-sectional studies in older adults (n = 74) investigating the relationships between participant characteristics, blood (inflammatory and neurotrophic) and brain biomarkers (neurometabolites, regional grey matter volumes), and cognitive function. Studies 5–8 evaluated the effect of a single bout (n = 37) and a 12-week resistance exercise programme (n = 74) on blood and brain biomarkers and cognitive function in older adults. Studies 6 and 7 further compared outcomes between cognitively healthy older adults and those at elevated risk of MCI (based on the Montreal Cognitive Assessment). Study 9 systematically reviewed evidence on the effects of exercise interventions on cognitive performance in individuals with SCI and highlighted factors underlying their elevated risk of cognitive decline. Study 10 tested the effect of a single bout of NMES on exerkines and cognitive performance in persons with SCI. Study 11 described the protocol of a 12-week NMES intervention in individuals with SCI to examine the effect on exerkines and cognitive outcomes. Results: Study 1 identified 16 exerkines with known (in)direct effects on long-term synaptic potentiation. Study 2 reported 1,126 putative myokines, most with still unknown effects on the brain and body. Study 3 found associations between the circulating inflammatory marker kynurenine and signs of neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration in older adults. Study 4 showed that older adults with normal-to-slightly-elevated body weight and greater handgrip strength maintained larger brain volumes. Study 5 demonstrated improved working memory performance in older adults immediately after a single session of resistance exercise training compared to control group. Study 6 suggested hippocampal volume preservation over time in the resistance exercise group, and Study 7 revealed executive function improvements in older adults at elevated risk of MCI after 12 weeks of resistance training compared with control group. Study 8 demonstrated neurometabolic changes in older adults who contracted COVID-19 during participation. Study 9 confirmed that no prior studies have investigated exercise effects on cognitive function in individuals with SCI. Study 10 found increases in lactate levels, but no changes in cognitive performance after a single NMES session in persons with SCI. Study 11 described the design for a future 12-week NMES intervention study for individuals with SCI. Conclusions: The dissertation advances the understanding of exercise effects on brain health and cognition in older adults and individuals with SCI, providing a neurobiological basis for future research. Kynurenine levels, handgrip strength, and a healthy body weight emerged as potential biomarkers of brain health for older adults. The findings underscore the importance of monitoring cognitive functioning in persons with SCI. Although further research is needed to clarify the effect of different exercise modalities across populations with varying cognitive risk profiles, the present evidence reinforces the notion that physical exercise benefits brain function. A multimodal, enjoyable, and sustainable exercise programme maintained throughout life is likely to be the most effective strategy to mitigate or delay age-related cognitive decline. Keywords: aging, cognition, myokines, exercise, spinal cord injury
The Relationship Between Emotional Intelligence and Self-Compassion Among Medical Students
Introduction: In the scientific literature, medical students’ emotional intelligence is associated with better professional achievements, higher quality of patient care, and lower levels of burnout. Self-compassion may help reduce experienced stress and enhance psychological well-being. Although emotional intelligence and self-compassion are important competencies for future physicians, research examining the interplay between these constructs is still lacking. Therefore, this study aims to fill this research gap. Methods: The study involved 234 medical students (years I–VI) from the Lithuanian University of Health Sciences. The participants’ mean age was 22.14 ± 3.51 years. The questionnaire consisted of the Emotional Intelligence Scale, the Self-Compassion Scale, and sociodemographic questions. Results: The findings revealed that medical students demonstrated a relatively high level of emotional intelligence. No statistically significant differences in emotional intelligence were found based on sociodemographic variables. Medical students showed a moderate level of self-compassion. They were significantly more likely (p < 0.001) to apply positive self-compassion strategies than negative ones. A statistically significant association was found between self-compassion and age (p < 0.001). A weak but statistically significant positive correlation was identified between emotional intelligence and self-compassion (rho = 0.41, p < 0.001). Conclusions: Emotional intelligence among medical students was not associated with sex, age, or study year. Self-compassion was related to some sociodemographic characteristics, excluding sex. A statistically significant association between emotional intelligence and self-compassion was observed in the sample of medical students. Keywords: emotional intelligence, self-compassion, medical students
Health, Rehabilitation and Adapted Physical Activity
Effects of Lower Limb Resistance Training on Cognitive Function in Older Adults with Mild Cognitive Impairment Risk
Background: Promoting healthy ageing is a major public health challenge, especially with increasing mild cognitive impairment (MCI) prevalence and associated dementia risk in older adults. Exercise training may improve cognitive function, yet studies on its effects in MCI populations remain limited and inconsistent in design and outcomes. This study investigated the impact of a 12-week structured lower limb resistance training (RT) programme on cognitive performance, specifically memory and executive function in older adults at low and high risk of MCI. Methods: Fifty-three older adults (aged 60–80) completed the study and were categorised into low risk (lrMCI, n = 28) and high risk (hrMCI, n = 25) MCI groups. Participants were assigned to a 12-week RT programme (2 sessions/week, 4 lower-limb exercises, 3 sets of 6–10 reps at 70–85% 1RM) or a passive control group. Cognitive performance was assessed using the Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA) and ANAM4™ neurocognitive battery before and after the intervention. Results: At week 12, participants with high risk MCI in the resistance training group showed a significant improvement in MoCA total scores, particularly in executive function and delayed recall domains. An increase in MoCA scores was also observed in the control group, suggesting a potential learning effect. Performance across ANAM4 cognitive tasks did not show statistically significant changes following the intervention. Conclusion: A twice-weekly RT programme over 12 weeks did not produce robust improvements across all cognitive domains, but trends suggested potential benefits in executive function and inhibitory control among older adults at higher risk of MCI. The cognitive response to RT appears to vary by MCI risk level and baseline cognitive status. Keywords: older adults, MoCA (Montreal Cognitive Assessment), executive function, memory, ANAM4 neurocognitive battery
Factors Determining the Change in Physical Fitness of Lithuanian Primary Schoolchildren Over a One-Year Period
Background and objectives: Physical fitness is a key indicator of children’s health, yet global evidence shows a steady decline over the past decades (Aubert et al., 2018; Aubert et al., 2022). Lithuanian longitudinal data confirm this trend, with schoolchildren’s fitness decreasing consistently since the 1990s (Venckūnas et al., 2017). Insufficient activity is widespread—only about 20% of children achieve the recommended 60 minutes of daily moderate-to-vigorous activity (Marques et al., 2019). Low activity and poor fitness are linked to long-term health risks, including chronic diseases later in life (Booth et al., 2012; López Sánchez et al., 2022). Early school years are particularly critical for building motor competence and sustainable activity habits (Gallahue et al., 2015; Stodden et al., 2016). The Ecological Systems Theory highlights that children’s fitness is shaped not only by individual behaviour but also by family and school contexts (Perumal et al., 2017). In addition, motivational aspects are crucial—according to Self-Determination Theory, autonomous motivation, satisfaction of basic psychological needs (autonomy, competence, relatedness), and enjoyment of physical activity strongly influence children’s engagement and long-term fitness outcomes (Ryan & Deci, 2000; Standage et al., 2005). The dissertation therefore examines one-year changes in physical fitness among Lithuanian primary schoolchildren (aged 7–11), identifying determinants at the individual, interpersonal, and institutional levels, while also considering motivational factors through the lens of Self-Determination Theory. Methods: A longitudinal study was conducted with a representative sample of primary schoolchildren. Physical fitness was assessed through standardised field-based tests; motivation, behaviour, and contextual determinants were measured using validated questionnaires. Statistical analyses were applied to explore associations between changes in physical fitness and individual, interpersonal, and organisational variables. Results: Children’s physical fitness improved over one year, though changes varied by age and gender. Higher levels of both organised and unorganised physical activity, normal body mass index, and greater satisfaction with exercise were associated with better fitness outcomes. Family environments were generally supportive of healthy behaviour, yet parental physical activity levels and subjective perceptions of a favourable context did not translate into higher child activity levels. In contrast, organisational factors—particularly school involvement in physical activity promotion projects, school size, and principals’ competencies in physical education—showed the strongest and most consistent associations with positive changes in physical fitness. Conclusions: Physical fitness in Lithuanian primary schoolchildren improves annually, but the extent and direction of change differ by subgroup and attribute. Individual activity levels and motivation remain important, yet organisational determinants emerge as the most influential and modifiable factors, highlighting the central role of schools in promoting children’s health and physical fitness.
Development of positive behavior and mental toughness skills in young athletes
Background and objectives: In recent years, the growing issue of aggression and mutual disrespect among both athletic and non-athletic adolescents and young individuals – regardless of whether they become professional athletes – has increasingly been emphasized not only in public discourse but also in scientific research. This has become an undeniably relevant scientific problem (Cristello, Trucco, & Zucker, 2020; Jewett, Kerr, MacPherson, & Stirling, 2020; Mays & Thompson, 2009; Whitley et al., 2019). As a preventive measure against the manifestation of negative adolescent behavior, an integrated skill development program through sports, based on a comprehensive model of positive behavior and mental toughness skills, may play a crucial role (Chauke & Malatji, 2022; Gould, Griffes, & Carson, 2011; Gucciardi & Jones, 2012; Slack et al., 2015). This enables the formulation of a key research question: How would an educational program based on a comprehensive model of positive behavior and mental toughness skills contribute to the development of young athletes’ positive behavior and mental toughness skills? The aim of this dissertation is to reveal the characteristics of young athletes’ positive behavior and mental toughness skill development. Methods: The dissertation employed a mixed methods convergent design (one-phase design) research strategy (Creswell & Creswell, 2023). The logical sequence of the research consisted of five phases. First, a scientific literature analysis was conducted on the dissertation topic. Second, research instruments for the dissertation study were identified. Third, a diagnostic study was carried out, during which a written survey was used to assess the level of positive behavior and mental toughness skills among young athletes (aged 15–18). Fourth, an educational experiment was organized, starting with an initial assessment of both the experimental group (n = 30) and the control group (n = 32) using a written survey. The experimental group underwent an intervention involving participation in activities based on an integrated skill development program designed to enhance positive behavior and mental toughness skills among young athletes. Afterwards, a final assessment was conducted for both the experimental and control groups, along with a qualitative study involving the parents of young athletes from both groups. Finally, quantitative and qualitative data were analyzed, and data integration was performed. Results: The applied multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) revealed that the skill levels of the experimental group were statistically significantly higher (p < 0.05) compared to the control group in most skill scales, except for the determination and visualization skills, which are part of the athletic mental toughness skills construct. The integration of quantitative and qualitative data demonstrated a trend: the higher the Cohen’s d effect size identified in the quantitative analysis, the higher the frequency of analysis units in the qualitative data, except for the empathy, self-control, and self-esteem skill scales. The results of quantitative and qualitative data integration not only confirmed this trend but also revealed that the acquired skills were transferred to other life contexts. Conclusions: After the application of the integrated positive behavior and mental toughness skill development program based on the positive behavior and mental toughness skill development model, the skill levels of the experimental group were statistically significantly higher (p < 0.05) compared to the control group. Moreover, the acquired skills were successfully transferred to other life contexts.
The Role of Throw-ins in the UEFA Champions League: A Tactical Analysis
Background: This study investigates the tactical role of throw-ins during the 2022–2023 UEFA Champions League season, focusing on their impact on attacking productivity across multiple parameters such as field zone, direction, length, and body targeting method. Method: A total of 2,855 throw-ins were analysed using logistic regression to assess their effectiveness based on variables like throw-in location (zone), direction, and the body height they targeted. Results: Short, upward-directed, and backward-passing throw-ins in the final third significantly increased the likelihood of a positive outcome (e.g. shot, corner, goal kick) (p < 0.05). Throw-ins targeting above the waist were 3.51 times, and those in the final third 1.93 times, more likely to yield positive results. Advancing teams had a higher rate of successful throw-ins compared to eliminated teams. Conclusion: Throw-ins function as strategic micro-tactical tools rather than simple restarts, contributing to possession, attack initiation, and positional advantage. Their effective use appears to correlate with team success, addressing a key gap in the literature. Keywords: soccer, tactic, match analysis, set pieces
Analysis of Offensive Efficiency and Goal Scoring in the Stanley Cup Finals 2023 and 2024
Background: The purpose of this study was to investigate the types of situations in which goals are scored at the highest level of ice hockey. The study focused on the Stanley Cup Final games (n=12). Methods: Two different game analysis methods based on systematic observation were used. The observation was conducted using video recordings after the games. The data consisted of (n=) 1477 shots, (n=) 79 goals, and (n=) 3619 even-strength attacks. Results: Teams had (n=) 181 even-strength attacks per game. The overall attack efficiency was 7%. For scoring goals, defensive play in the offensive zone was particularly important, as the scoring efficiency of attacks starting in the offensive zone was statistically highly significant compared to the defensive and the neutral zones (p<0.001). Goal-scoring situations were classified based on the number of players on the ice and the different zones of the rink. Most goals were scored during 5 vs. 5 play (71%), with the remaining goals coming from 5 vs. 4 power plays (9%) or other situations (20%). The majority of goals were scored from close to the net. Scoring efficiency was statistically significant in sector 1 (p<0.05) compared to sector 2, and highly significant (p<0.001) compared to sectors 3–4. Conclusion: Scoring becomes easier when: 1) The attack starts in the offensive zone, and 2) the shot is taken close to the net. If the attack starts further away, fast and counter-attacks improve scoring chances, as the opponent does not have time to organize their defense. Keywords: ice hockey, goal scoring, tactics, game analysis, attack, NHL
The role of personal and sports values on intentions to compete clean or to cheat
Background and objectives: Cheating is defined as the voluntary violation of established rules, characterized by an element of deception (Green, 2006). The opposite of cheating is clean sport (Petróczi et al., 2021). A recent study revealed that up to 57.1 % athletes are using doping (Ulrich et al., 2018). Cheating in sports is associated with various factors (internal and external), but a particularly important yet less studied internal factor is values. Based on Schwartz’s (1992) theory of personal values, four higher-level value dimensions are identified: self-enhancement, self-transcendence, openness to change, and conservation. However, athletes’ intentions and behavior can be influenced not only by personal values, but also by sports values. Lee et al. (2000) identified such sports values as morality, competence and status. Depending on which values are more important to athletes, they may be inclined to behave one way or another, for example, to cheat in sports or to compete clean. Purpose of the research is to reveal the role of values in athletes’ intentions to compete clean or to cheat in sport. Methods: Two research methods were used in the dissertation: quantitative and qualitative. This methodological approach was chosen because cheating in sports is a multifaceted problem, which cannot be adequately understood using just one research method. Results: The results of quantitative research revealed that athletes are not inclined to use doping and are more likely to compete clean in sport. The most important personal value for athletes is self-transcendence. For athletes, the most important sports values relate to competence, and the least important relate to status. The personal values of self-enhancement and openness to change, and sports’ status values are positively related with intentions to use doping and negatively related with intentions to compete clean. The personal values of self-transcendence and conservation, together with the moral and competence values of sports, are negatively related with intentions to use doping and positively related with intentions to compete clean. We found a statistically significant positive relationship between doping self-regulatory efficacy and intentions to compete clean, and a negative relationship between doping self-regulatory efficacy and intentions to use doping. Statistically significant correlations were found between athletes’ attitudes towards doping and both intentions to compete clean and intentions to use doping. We found a statistically significant positive relationship between moral identity and intentions to compete clean and a negative relationship between moral identity and intentions to use doping. There is a statistically significant correlation between acceptance of cheating and acceptance of gamesmanship with intentions to use doping and intentions to compete clean. Correlational analysis revealed statistically significant relationships between the empowering climate and both athletes’ intentions to compete clean and intentions to use doping. Hierarchical regression analysis was performed in order to reveal the relationship between athletes’ internal and external factors and intentions to compete clean or intentions to use doping. Results of the qualitative research revealed two meta-themes (cheating in sports and clean sport). Additionally, themes, sub-themes and mini-themes were formed. Thematic maps were created to describe the qualitative research data. Conclusions: Cheating is related to various factors, both internal – such as personal and sports values, doping self-regulatory efficacy, moral identity, attitudes towards doping, intentions to cheat – and external – such as the empowering and disempowering climate created by a coach. When assessing the impact of internal and external factors on athletes’ intentions to cheat and compete clean, it was found that personal and sports values, moral identity, doping self-regulatory efficacy, attitudes towards doping and the coach-created climate – all these factors influence athletes’ intentions to compete clean or to use doping. Significant predictive factors for intentions to use doping were lower moral identity, lower doping self-regulatory efficacy, and positive attitudes towards doping/cheating (higher acceptance of cheating). Significant predictive factors for intentions to compete clean were more important self-transcendence, conservatism, and moral values, higher moral identity, higher doping self-regulatory efficacy and negative attitudes towards cheating (less acceptance of cheating). This means that internal factors have a greater impact on athletes’ intention to cheat compared to external factors. These are new and significant results that reveal the importance of internal factors in cheating in sports, with particular emphasis on the role of values. This is important for the development of new strategies aimed at combating cheating in sports. The qualitative study revealed how athletes and coaches perceive the factors that encourage clean sport. It was found that doping prevention initiatives should be carried out by the state, schools, sports organizations and anti-doping agencies. Since athletes become familiar with the concepts of doping at a very young age, it is believed that prevention should take place while still in school. Anti-doping policy should put more emphasis on clean sport, emphasizing the role of values, thus aiming to reduce the prevalence of doping in sports.
The Role of Sport Psychology Services for Elite Sports Athletes The Case of Azerbaijan
This research paper explores the role of sport psychology services for athletes in Azerbaijan, and examines the factors shaping the current state of psychological support within the country’s sports industry. The study investigates the limited adoption of these services, highlighting key challenges such as the scarcity of skilled sports psychologists, a lack of awareness regarding the benefits of psychological support, and the social stigma associated with athletes seeking such assistance. These factors collectively hinder the development and effectiveness of sports psychology services in Azerbaijan. By addressing these issues, the research offers valuable insights for sports federations and organizations, aiming to promote the successful implementation of psychological support systems and enhance athletes’ performance and well-being. The findings highlight the importance of expanding access to qualified professionals, fostering awareness about the value of psychological support, and challenging societal norms that discourage athletes from seeking help. The paper concludes by advocating a comprehensive framework to integrate sports psychology services into Azerbaijan’s sports industry, thereby contributing to the overall development and success of its athletes. Keywords: sport psychology, psychological support services, elite athletes, social stigma, Azerbaijan
Self-care and Self-Compassion in University Student Athletes
Background: Student athletes (SA) face unique challenges in balancing academic and athletic demands, frequently impacting well-being. This study aimed to measure levels of self-care and self-compassion in SA in one university in Munster, Ireland and also aimed to investigate the relationship between these and identify some ways that universities could support SA in strengthening self-care and self-compassion behaviours. Methods: A cross-sectional survey was used, employing shortened forms of the Mindful Self-Care Scale and the Self-Compassion Scale, as well as demographic questions. One multiple-option question asked participants to identify potential supports. Data were analysed using descriptive and inferential statistics. Results: Fifty-six responses were received. Most participants had below mean self-care and moderate self-compassion. Self-care and self-compassion were moderately positively correlated. SA who trained most frequently had lowest self-compassion. SA want tailored support with self-care and self-compassion. Support and education are needed to enable SA to develop positive self-caring and self-compassionate behaviours. Conclusion: Although it is not to possible draw causal relationships, results suggest that more self-compassionate SA are more self-caring. Support, advocacy and education is needed to enable SA to maintain and develop positive self-caring and self-compassionate behaviours. Keywords: mental health, well-being, quantitative, occupational therapy, support
S14-4: Equality in Sport and Male Allyship
Purpose: Male allyship in Ireland is gaining increased academic and socio-political attention, emerging as a critical component in advancing gender equality. Within a historical context of Catholic conservatism and entrenched patriarchal norms, male allyship challenges traditional gender roles and facilitates a reconfiguration of masculinities. Recent developments – such as the referenda on same-sex marriage (2015) and abortion rights (2018) – have created a new landscape for male allies to work alongside feminist advocates in the pursuit of gender equality. It is acknowledged that real change is contingent on gender transformative approaches that address more entrenched structural inequalities. As the first country in the world to publish the national men’s health policy, Ireland has been to the forefront in promoting healthy masculinities as part of a wider conceptualisation of men’s health and a commitment to gender equality. Civil society organisations and national campaigns (e.g. White Ribbon Ireland) have also played key roles in fostering male engagement with issues such as consent and domestic violence, as well as providing an alternative discourse to toxic masculinity. Description: This session will offer some critical reflections on the potential implications of these initiatives for women in sport. It will consider how sport (including sporting structures and institutions) can be a catalyst for developing and reproducing gender stereotypes such as that boys ‘have to be good’ and girls are ‘no good’ at sport (Women in Sport, 2024, March; Women in Sport, 2024, March 25). Notably, this is against a backdrop of increased online abuse of sportswomen (Women in Sport, 2024, March 25). It will reflect on the invisibility of male privilege in sport and will review the factors underpinning the persistent male bias in the coverage of sport. Conclusions: Drawing upon some key learning within an Irish context, it will offer some suggestions as to how male allyship needs to be framed and conceptualised within a context of greater equality in sport being better for all. It will demonstrate how male allyship demands both cultural transformation and policy-driven change, and that it is a dynamic and often uncomfortable process of reflexively examining male privilege and being accountable. It will conclude by stressing that male engagement in allyship needs to move beyond rhetoric into meaningful and sustained action.
Validity and Test–Retest Reliability of the VO2 Master Metabolic Analyser: A Laboratory and Artistic Gymnastics-Specific Evaluation
Background: This study assessed the validity and reliability of oxygen uptake (V̇O2) and minute ventilation (V̇E) of the mobile metabolic analyser VO2 Master under laboratory and gymnastics-specific conditions. Methods: For validity testing six metabolic rates were reproduced by a metabolic simulator (VacuMed) and V̇E and V̇O2 were measured by two VO2 Masters (3209 and 3212). To evaluate test–retest reliability nine gymnasts (age 16.4 ± 1.0 years; height 168.2 cm; weight 59.4 kg) performed a circle test (CT) and nine athletic adults (age 29.7 ± 4.9 years; height 177.8 ± 7.4 cm; weight 71.3 ± 6.6 kg) performed a floor-specific test (FST). Validity was assessed by concordance correlation coefficient (CCC) and mean percentage error (MPE). Test–retest reliability was analysed using standard error of measurement (%SEM) and intra-class correlation coefficient ICC (2,1) for V̇O2mean, V̇O2peak, O2 deficit and O2 integral. Results: The VO2 Masters showed a MPE of 10.44 ± 1.48%, 7.56 ± 1.97%, 6.73 ± 1.93% and 7.56 ± 1.45% (3209) for V̇O2 and V̇E. The CCCs of 0.97 and 0.99 for V̇O2 and 0.98 for V̇E indicate a substantial to almost perfect agreement between VacuMed and VO2 Masters. In the CT, V̇O2mean, V̇O2peak, O2 deficit, and O2 integral showed ICCs between 0.74 and 0.95 and SEM of ≤10% and ≤5%. In the FST, V̇O2mean, V̇O2peak, O2 deficit, and O2 integral showed ICCs between 0.76 and 0.94 and values of ≤10% and ≤5% for %SEM. Conclusion: The VO2 Master is a practical, reliable and valid metabolic analyser for short term exercises like gymnastics routines. Keywords: Metabolic analyser, oxygen uptake, quality criteria, error of measurement, short term exercises